18 September

NEW - Domitian – Roman emperor

Efficient tyrant rebuilt parts of Rome

The Emperor Domitian, who kept the Roman upper classes under control by subjecting them to a 15-year reign of terror, died on this day in 96 AD in Rome.  He has been described as ‘a ruthless, but efficient, autocrat,’ who clashed with the Senate and drastically reduced their powers. But he strengthened the Roman economy and started a massive building programme to restore the city of Rome, which had been damaged by successive wars and fires.  The last member of the Flavian dynasty, Domitian was the son of Vespasian, and the brother of Titus, who were his two predecessors as Emperor.  He played only a minor role during their reigns, but after the death of his brother, Titus, who had no children, Domitian was declared Emperor by the Praetorian Guard.  Domitian revalued the Roman coinage and strengthened the border defences of the Empire. He fought wars in Caledonia (Scotland) and Dacia, which roughly corresponds with present day Romania, and he became popular with both the ordinary people and the army.  But he was considered a tyrant by the Roman senate because he appointed himself as a permanent censor and he tried to control public and private morals. Read more...

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Francesca Caccini – singer and composer

Court musician composed oldest surviving opera by a woman

Prolific composer and talented singer Francesca Caccini was born on this day in 1587 in Florence.  Sometimes referred to by the nickname La Cecchina, she composed what is widely considered to be the oldest surviving opera by a woman composer, La Liberazione di Ruggiero, which was adapted from the epic poem, Orlando Furioso by Ludovico Ariosto.  Caccini was the daughter of the composer and musician, Giulio Caccini, and she received her early musical training from him. Like her father, she regularly sang at the Medici court.  She was part of an ensemble of singers referred to as le donne di Giulio Romano, which included her sister, Settimia, and other unnamed pupils.  After her sister married and moved to Mantua, the ensemble broke up, but Caccini continued to serve the court as a teacher, singer and composer, where she was popular because of her musical virtuosity.  She is believed to have been a quick and prolific composer but sadly very little of her music has survived. She was considered equal at the time to Jacopo Peri and Marco da Gagliano, who were also working for the court.  Read more…

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Rossano Brazzi - Hollywood star

Actor quit as a lawyer for career on the big screen

The movie actor Rossano Brazzi, whose credits include The Barefoot Contessa, Three Coins in the Fountain and South Pacific, was born on this day in 1916 in Bologna.  Brazzi gave up a promising career as a lawyer in order to act and went on to appear in more than 200 films, more often than not cast as a handsome heartbreaker or romantic aristocrat.  He was at his peak in the 50s and 60s but continued to accept parts until the late 80s. His last major role was as Father DeCarlo in Omen III: The Final Conflict in 1981.  Brazzi's family moved to Florence when he was aged four. His father Adelmo, a shoemaker, opened a leather factory in which Rossano, his brother Oscar and his sister, Franca, would all eventually work.  Adelmo had ambitions for Rossano, however, helping him win a place at the University of Florence, where he obtained a law degree, and then sending him to Rome to work in the legal practice of a family friend. But Rossano had become involved in a drama group at university and looked for opportunities to continue acting.  Eventually, he was approached by a film director and when he was offered a part in a film in 1939 he quit his job with the legal practice in order to devote himself to acting as a career.  Read more…

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Alberto Franchetti - opera composer

Caruso sang his arias on first commercial record in 1902

The opera composer Alberto Franchetti, some of whose works were performed by the great tenor Enrico Caruso for his first commercial recording, was born on this day in 1860 in Turin.  Caruso had been taken with Franchetti’s opera, Germania, when he sang the male lead role in the opera’s premiere at Teatro alla Scala in Milan in March 1902.  A month later, Caruso famously made his first recording on a phonograph in a Milan hotel room and chose a number of arias from Germania and critics noted that he sang the aria Ah vieni qui… No, non chiuder gli occhi vaghi with a particular sweetness of voice.  A friend and rival of Giacomo Puccini, Franchetti had a style said to have been influenced by the German composers Wagner and Meyerbeer. He was sometimes described as the "Meyerbeer of modern Italy."  Despite the exposure the success of Germania and the association with Caruso brought him, Franchetti’s operas slipped quite quickly into obscurity.  Blame for that can be levelled at least in part at the Fascist Racial Laws of 1938, which made life and work very difficult for Italy's Jewish population.  Read more…

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Book of the Day: The Twelve Caesars: Suetonius, translated by Robert Graves, edited by James Rives

The Twelve Caesars - Julius Caesar, Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian - created an empire which dominated the then-known world and influenced it for a millennium. Power corrupts; absolute power corrupts absolutely. As secretary of studies under Trajan and then private secretary to Emperor Hadrian, the scholar Suetonius has access to the imperial archives and used them (along with eyewitness accounts) to produce one of the most colourful biographical works in history.  His format and style set the tone for Western biography - a review of ancestry and reign, but, mostly, a mirror to reflect the most ridiculous aspects of the character, and a vehicle for gossip. Julius Caesar does cross the Rubicon and is assassinated. Beyond that, we also learn that Caesar had piercing dark eyes and an unease about his baldness. Nero, we are told, employed over five thousand robust young men to learn various kinds of applause which they were to practise whenever he performed.  This masterpiece of observation, immortalised in Robert Graves's classic translation, presents us with a gallery of vividly drawn - and all too human - individuals.

Suetonius, in full Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, was born in 69 AD and in 117 AD entered Trajan's imperial service, holding many offices until 122 AD when he was dismissed. Suetonius wrote a number of biographies. Robert Graves was born in 1895. He went from school to the First World War, where he was seriously wounded at the Battle of the Somme. He wrote his autobiography, Goodbye to All That, in 1929, and it was soon established as a modern classic. He died in 1985 in Majorca, his home since 1929.

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Domitian – Roman emperor

Efficient tyrant rebuilt parts of Rome

Domitian, son of Vespasian, became 
Emperor after the death of his brother

The Emperor Domitian, who kept the Roman upper classes under control by subjecting them to a 15-year reign of terror, died on this day in 96 AD in Rome.

He has been described as ‘a ruthless, but efficient, autocrat,’ who clashed with the Senate and drastically reduced their powers. But he strengthened the Roman economy and started a massive building programme to restore the city of Rome, which had been damaged by successive wars and fires.

The last member of the Flavian dynasty, Domitian was the son of Vespasian, and the brother of Titus, who were his two predecessors as Emperor.

He played only a minor role during their reigns, but after the death of Titus, who had no children, Domitian was declared Emperor by the Praetorian Guard.

Domitian revalued the Roman coinage and strengthened the border defences of the Empire. He fought wars in Caledonia (Scotland) and Dacia, which roughly corresponds with present day Romania, and he became popular with both the ordinary people and the army. 

But he was considered a tyrant by the Roman senate because he appointed himself as a permanent censor and he tried to control public and private morals.  He prosecuted corrupt public officials and punished anyone who had libelled him with either exile or death. He also expelled all philosophers from Rome during his reign.

Domitian was born in Rome in 51 AD. He received the education of a privileged young man, studying rhetoric and literature. In his book, De vita Caesarum, commonly known in English as The Twelve Caesars, the historian Suetonius wrote that Domitian could quote the important poets, and writers such as Homer and Virgil, on significant occasions.

Domitian was unpopular 
with the Roman Senate

After falling in love with Domitia Longina, Domitian persuaded her husband to divorce her so that he could marry her himself. But when their only son died in childhood, Domitian exiled his wife for unknown reasons, although he quickly recalled her.

For his personal use, Domitian had  the Villa of Domitian built in the Alban Hills outside Rome. In the capital itself, he built the Palace of Domitian on the Palatine Hill and he built several other villas in different parts of Italy.

He had the Stadium of Domitian built and he dedicated it as a gift to the people of Rome. It was the city’s first permanent venue for competitive athletics and the Piazza Navona occupies the same area now.

He increased the silver purity of Roman coins and he restored and improved many buildings in Rome, while carrying out a rigorous taxation policy. He founded the Capitoline Games in 86 AD and spent money on public entertainment.

Domitian was assassinated on 18 September 96 at the age of 44 after a conspiracy by court officials. He was stabbed in the groin by one of his courtiers and although he fought back and killed his assailant, other courtiers joined in the fray and succeeded in killing the Emperor.

Domitian was succeeded as Emperor by Marcus Cocceius Nerva, who had served under Nero and succeeding members of the Flavian dynasty and was the first choice of the Senate. Although the Senate was said to have rejoiced at the death of Domitian, the army were upset by it.

The Praetorian Guard demanded the executions of Domitian’s assassins but when Nerva refused they laid siege to the imperial palace and took Nerva hostage. He was forced to submit to their demands and even gave a speech thanking them. He then adopted Trajan as his successor and abdicated.

Although the opinion of Domitian recorded in classical writing was mostly negative, later historians have re-evaluated his achievements and he is seen as having contributed to providing the foundation for the next, more peaceful, 100 years of the Roman empire. 

The remains of the Villa of Domitian still exist within
the gardens of Villa Barberini in the Alban Hills

Travel tip:

The Villa of Domitian, a vast and luxurious property, was built by the Emperor in the Alban Hills, 20km (12 miles) from Rome, where the summer temperatures are more comfortable than in the city. The villa faces west, overlooking the sea and the port city of Ostia. The remains of the villa are now located within the papal Villa Barberini property in the pontifical estate of Castel Gandolfo. The Villa Barberini gardens are open to visitors.  Situated in the Alban Hills with panoramic views of Lake Albano, Castel Gandolfo is home to approximately 8,900 residents and is renowned as one of Italy's most scenic towns, listed in I Borghi più belli d'Italia - The most beautiful villages of Italy.

What remains of the 'stadium' inside Domitian's
extensive palace on the Palatine Hill in Rome

Travel tip:

The Palace of Domitian was built as the Emperor’s official residence in Rome on the Palatine Hill in the city. Only parts of the palace can be seen today as some of it lies under later buildings. It was designed by the architect Rabinius and had an official wing (Domus Flavia) and a private house (Domus Augustana). You can still make out the shape of its two courtyards from the existing remains.  From the time of Augustus, who ruled from 27 BC to 14 AD, Roman emperors traditionally lived in an imperial palace atop the Palatine Hill, the central hill among the seven hills of ancient Rome.  Domitian's palace is one of three with remains that are visible today, the others being those of Augustus and Tiberius. The word ‘palace’ – palazzo in Italian – in fact derives from the name of the hill, which looks down upon the Roman Forum on one side, and the Circus Maximus on the other.

Also on this day:

1587: The birth of singer and composer Francesca Caccini

1860: The birth of opera composer Alberto Franchetti

1916: The birth of actor Rossano Brazzi

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17 September

Nives Meroi - mountaineer

One of history’s greatest female climbers 

The climber Nives Meroi, widely regarded as one of history’s finest female mountaineers, was born on this day in 1961 in Bonate Sotto, a small town in the province of Bergamo, about 40km (25 miles) northeast of Milan.  One half of a renowned husband-and-wife climbing team with Romano Benet, Meroi is one of only three women to have reached the peak of all 14 of the so-called eight-thousanders, the only mountains in the world that tower about 8,000m, topped by Everest (8,848m), which she conquered in 2007, and K2 (8,611), which she had scaled in 2006.  Meroi completed the full set of 14 when she reached the summit of Annapurna (8,091m) in the Himalayas in 2017.  She and Benet, born in Italy but who has Slovenian nationality, are the first married couple to have climbed all 14 together.  The two first met more than 40 years ago in Tarvisio in Friuli Venezia Giulia, Benet’s hometown, situated in an Alpine valley close to the borders with Austria and Slovenia. Meroi, a student, was sharing a house with Benet’s sister. They began hiking and climbing together after discovering they had a common love of the mountainous scenery.  Read more…

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Maria Luisa of Savoy

Girl from Turin ruled Spain while a teenager

Maria Luisa of Savoy, who grew up to become a queen consort of Spain with a lot of influence over her husband, King Philip V, was born on this day in 1688 at the Royal Palace in Turin.  She was the daughter of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy, and his French wife, Anne Marie d’Orleans.  Philip V of Spain wanted to maintain his ties with Victor Amadeus II and therefore asked for Maria Luisa’s hand in marriage. She was wed by proxy to Philip V in 1701 when she was still only 13.  Maria Luisa was escorted to Nice and from there sailed to Antibes en route to Barcelona. The official marriage took place in November of the same year.  Maria Luisa was both beautiful and intelligent and Phillip V was deeply in love with her right from the start.  In 1702 when Philip V left Spain to fight in the War of the Spanish Succession, Maria Luisa acted as Regent in his absence.  She was praised as an effective ruler despite being only 14 years old. She gave audiences to ambassadors, worked for hours with ministers, and prevented Savoy from joining the enemy. She inspired people to make donations towards the war effort and her leadership was admired throughout Spain.  Read more…

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Reinhold Messner - mountaineer

Climber from Dolomites who conquered Everest

Reinhold Messner, the Italian mountaineer who was the first climber to reach the summit of Mount Everest without supplemental oxygen and the first to reach the peak on a solo climb, was born on this day in 1944 in Bressanone, a town in Italy's most northerly region of Alto Adige, which is also known as South Tyrol.  Messner was also the first man to ascend every one of the world's 14 peaks that rise to more than 8,000 metres (26,000 ft) above sea level.  His 1976 ascent of Everest with the Austrian climber Peter Habeler defied numerous doctors and other specialists in the effects of altitude who insisted that scaling the world's highest mountain without extra oxygen was not possible.  Born only 45km (28 miles) from Italy's border with Austria, Messner grew up speaking German and Italian and has also become fluent in English.  His father, Josef, introduced him to climbing and took him to his first summit at the age of five. He soon became familiar with all the peaks of the Dolomites.   From a family of 10 children - nine of them boys - Messner shared his passion for adventure with brothers Günther and Hubert, with whom he would later cross the Arctic.  Read more…

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Ranuccio II Farnese – Duke of Parma

Feuding with the Popes led to the destruction of a city

Ranuccio II Farnese, who angered Innocent X so much that the Pope had part of his territory razed to the ground, was born on this day in 1630 in Parma.  Ranuccio II was the eldest son of Odoardo Farnese, the fifth sovereign duke of Parma, and his wife, Margherita de’ Medici.  Odoardo died while Ranuccio was still a minor and, although he succeeded him as Duke of Parma, he had to rule for the first two years of his reign under the regency of both his uncle, Francesco Maria Farnese, and his mother.  The House of Farnese had been founded by Ranuccio’s paternal ancestor, Alessandro Farnese, who became Pope Paul III. The Farnese family had been ruling Parma and Piacenza ever since Paul III gave it to his illegitimate son, Pier Luigi Farnese. He also made Pier Luigi the Duke of Castro.  While Odoardo had been Duke of Parma he had become involved in a power struggle with Pope Urban VIII, who was a member of the Barberini family. The Barberini family were keen to acquire Castro, which was north of Rome in the Papal States.  When Odoardo found himself unable to pay his debts, Urban VIII responded to the creditors’ pleas for help, by sending troops to occupy Castro.  Read more…

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Book of the Day: 8000m: Climbing the World's Highest Mountains: All 14 Summits, by Alan Hinkes

In this stunning large-format book, British mountaineer Alan Hinkes describes for the first time in one place his experiences of climbing all 14 of the peaks over 8000m: the world's highest mountains, in the Himalaya and Karakoram. While the photographs - despite being taken in impossible conditions - capture the beauty and majesty of the mountain landscapes of the roof of the world, the text describes the minute-by-minute struggle to survive in 'the death zone', let alone climb to the summits, often solo and in roaring winds and Arctic temperatures. As well as reflecting on the Yorkshire childhood and first Alpine ascents that got him to his first 8000m summit attempt, and the life that he has led and plans to lead since becoming the first Briton to reach all the 8000ers, Alan recalls the climbing companions he met along the way, several of whom have died in their beloved mountains, the trek-ins, the base camps, the setbacks and the triumphs. 8000m is a book to challenge and inspire mountain-lovers everywhere.

From an early age in Yorkshire, Alan Hinkes felt a deep attraction to hilly landscapes, which soon developed into a fascination with mountains and rock climbing. Alan resigned from his former profession as a teacher to become an International Mountain Guide in the mid 1980s. It was at this time that he began to climb in the Himalaya, where 6000m summits gradually progressed to the 8000m climbs recounted in this book.

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16 September

NEW - Pietro Tacca - sculptor

Pupil of Giambologna became major figure in own right

The sculptor Pietro Tacca, who succeeded his master, Giambologna, as court sculptor to the Medici Grand Dukes of Tuscany, was born on this day in 1577 in Carrara.  Tacca, who initially produced work in the Mannerist style, later made a significant contribution to the advance of Baroque and helped preserve Florence’s pre-eminence in bronze casting.  As well as his work for the Medici family, Tacca achieved something never before attempted with his marble equestrian statue of King Philip IV of Spain in Madrid’s Plaza de Oriente.  The sculpture, considered to be a masterpiece, is notable for depicting the monarch on a rearing horse with its front legs off the ground and the entire weight of the statue supported by its hind legs and tail.  Tacca began attending the Florence workshop of Giambologna in 1592 at the age of 15. Giambologna was the most important sculptor of his time in Florence, not only for his relationship with the Medici but also for his bronze statue of Neptune above the Fontana di Nettuno in Bologna.  When Giambologna’s first assistant, Pietro Francavilla, left for Paris in 1601, Tacca was chosen to fill his role.  Read more…

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Sir Anthony Panizzi - revolutionary librarian

Political refugee knighted by Queen Victoria

Sir Anthony Panizzi, who as Principal Librarian at the British Museum was knighted by Queen Victoria, was a former Italian revolutionary, born Antonio Genesio Maria Panizzi in Brescello in what is now Reggio Emilia, on this day in 1797.  A law graduate from the University of Parma, Panizzi began his working life as a civil servant, attaining the position of Inspector of Public Schools in his home town.   At the same time he was a member of the Carbonari, the network of secret societies set up across Italy in the early part of the 19th century, whose aim was to overthrow the repressive regimes of the Kingdoms of Naples and Sardinia, the Papal States and the Duchy of Modena and bring about the unification of Italy as a republic or a constitutional monarchy.  He was party to a number of attempted uprisings but was forced to flee the country in 1822, having been tipped off that he was to be arrested and would face trial as a subversive.  Panizzi found a haven in Switzerland, but after publishing a book that attacked the Duchy of Modena, of which Brescello was then part, he was sentenced to death in absentia by a court in Modena.  Read more…

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Terror attack on Café de Paris

Grenades thrown into iconic meeting place

The Café de Paris, a hang-out for Rome’s rich and famous during the 1950s and ‘60s and a symbol of the era encapsulated in Fellini’s classic film La dolce vita, was attacked by terrorists on this day in 1985.  Tables outside the iconic venue, on the city’s fashionable Via Veneto, were packed with tourists on a busy evening when two grenades were thrown from a passing car or motorcycle.  One of the devices, of the classic type known as pineapple grenades, failed to explode, but the other did go off, injuring up to 39 people in the vicinity.  Although 20 were taken to hospital, thankfully most were released quickly after treatment for minor wounds. There were no fatalities and only one of those hospitalised, a chef who happened to be waiting on tables at the time of the attack, suffered serious injuries.  Most of the victims were reported to be American, Argentine, West German or British tourists enjoying a late evening drink while taking in the atmosphere of Roman nightlife on a street lined with shops, cafés, airline offices and luxury hotels.  It was thought that three individuals carried out the attack but only one was apprehended and charged.  Read more…

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Sette e mezzo: The Palermo revolt of 1866

Insurgents took control of city after a major uprising 

The Sette e mezzo revolt - so named because it lasted seven and a half days - began in Palermo, the capital of Sicily, on this day in 1866.  The uprising - five years after the island became part of the new Kingdom of Italy - brought to the surface the tensions that existed in southern Italy following the Risorgimento movement and unification. It was put down harshly by the new government of Italy, who laid siege to the city of Palermo, deploying more than 40,000 soldiers under the command of General Raffaele Cadorna.  It is not known exactly how many Sicilians were killed before the revolt was subdued. Several thousand died as a result of a cholera outbreak that swept through Palermo and the surrounding area, but it is thought that more than 1,000 may have been killed as a direct consequence of the siege.  Sicily did not take well to the imposition of a national government, bringing with it plans to modernise the traditional economy and political system. New laws and taxes and the introduction of compulsory military service caused resentment. There was a feeling also that the industrialisation of Italy was too heavily concentrated in the north, with little investment being made in the south.  Read more…

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Paolo Di Lauro - Camorra boss

Capture of mobster struck at heart of Naples underworld

Italy's war against organised crime achieved one of its biggest victories on this day in 2005 when the powerful Camorra boss Paolo Di Lauro was arrested.  In a 6am raid, Carabinieri officers surrounded a building in the notorious Secondigliano district of Naples and entered the modest apartment in which Di Lauro was living with a female companion.  The 52-year-old gang boss did not resist arrest, possibly believing any charges against him would not be made to stick.  However, at a subsequent trial he was convicted and sentenced to 30 years' imprisonment for drug trafficking and other crimes and remains in jail.  Di Lauro's conviction was significant because it removed the man who had been at the head of one of the most lucrative criminal networks in all of Italy for more than 20 years and yet managed to maintain such a low profile that police at times suspected he was dead.  At its peak, the Di Lauro clan presided over an organisation that imported and distributed cocaine and heroin said to be worth around €200 million per year.  The clan essentially controlled the run-down northern suburbs of Naples, making money also from real estate, counterfeit high-end fashion and prostitution.  Read more…

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Alessandro Fortis - politician

Revolutionary who became Prime Minister

Alessandro Fortis, a controversial politician who was also Italy’s first Jewish prime minister, was born on this day in 1841 in Forlì in Emilia-Romagna.  Fortis led the government from March 1905 to February 1906. A republican follower of Giuseppe Mazzini and a volunteer in the army of Giuseppe Garibaldi, he was politically of the Historical Left but in time managed to alienate both sides of the divide with his policies.  He attracted the harshest criticism for his decision to nationalise the railways, one of his personal political goals, which was naturally opposed by the conservatives on the Right but simultaneously upset his erstwhile supporters on the Left, because the move had the effect of heading off a strike by rail workers. By placing the network in state control, Fortis turned all railway employees into civil servants, who were not allowed to strike under the law.  Some politicians also felt the compensation given to the private companies who previously ran the railways was far too generous and suspected Fortis of corruption.  His foreign policies, meanwhile, upset politicians and voters on both sides.  Read more…

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Book of the Day: Art and Architecture in Italy, 1600-1750: Volume One, The Early Baroque, by Rudolf Wittkower. Revised by Joseph Connors and Jennifer Montagu

The first of three volumes, this classic survey of Italian Baroque art and architecture focuses on the arts in every centre between Venice and Sicily in the early, high, and late Baroque periods. The heart of the study, however, lies in the architecture and sculpture of the exhilarating years of Roman High Baroque, when Bernini, Borromini, and Cortona were all at work under a series of enlightened popes. Wittkower’s text is now accompanied by a critical introduction and substantial new bibliography and includes colour illustrations for the first time.  Art and Architecture in Italy, 1600-1750: Volume One, The Early Baroque is part of the Yale University Press Pelican History of Art Series.

Rudolf Wittkower was Durning-Lawrence professor of the history of art at the University of London, chairman of the department of art history and archaeology at Columbia University, Kress Professor at the National Gallery, Washington, and Slade Professor at Cambridge. Jennifer Montagu was for many years the curator of the photographic collection at the Warburg Institute, University of London. Joseph Connors is professor of art history and archaeology at Columbia University.

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