Paolo Renier - Doge of Venice

Penultimate head of Most Serene Republic

The 1779 portrait of Renier, by Lodovico
Gallina, hangs in Venice's Museo Correr

Paolo Renier, the politician and diplomat who served as the penultimate Doge of the Venetian Republic, was born on this day in 1710 in the San Stae parish of the lagoon city.

After a long political career, Renier was already 69 years old when he was appointed as Doge in 1779, an advanced age to be taking up such a position. He was not a popular choice.

He was a skilled orator but seen by many as manipulative and opportunistic. By the time of his appointment, La Serenissima (the most serene) - as 'Repubblica di Venezia’was officially prefixed in medieval and Renaissance times - was in sharp decline, its strength as a military and trade power largely a thing of the past.

The Venetian nobility was riven with factionalism and there was widespread discontent among the ruling elite and the broader public. Renier is said to have received numerous threats, warning him against accepting the role.

He did not help his reputation by appearing to change his position on a number of issues once elected. Having previously aligned with reformist factions in the Venetian government, advocating for administrative and economic modernisation, once elected he shifted toward a more conservative stance, opposing many of the reforms he had once supported.

In doing so, Renier alienated both reformers and traditionalists, who saw him as untrustworthy or self-serving.  Venice was desperate for an inspirational leader who could recreate the belief in future prosperity the city once enjoyed. Yet historians suggest that Renier's speeches, while polished, sometimes emphasised the Republic’s decline in a tone that bordered on defeatism, which did little to inspire confidence.

This was exemplified in a public speech he made in April 1780, in which he lamented Venice’s lack of military strength, alliances, and economic vitality, concluding that the Republic survived only by “chance and the prudence of its government.” 

Paolo Renier was born into a patrician Venetian family prominent in the 16th and early 17th centuries. His father, Andrea, held numerous positions in the Venetian government, most prominently as a member of the Consiglio dei Sei, a panel of six officials who advised the Doge. Five of Paolo’s brothers also played a part in Venetian political life.

Renier was admired for his oratory
but seen as an opportunist

Renier’s own political career spanned more than 50 years, his rhetorical finesse and political tact eventually earning him two of the most critical and prestigious foreign posts in the Venetian diplomatic network. He served as ambassador to the Habsburg court in Vienna (1764–1768) and later as bailo (ambassador) to Constantinople (1769–1773).

But, skilled in political manoeuvring, he acquired enemies along the way, as well as a feeling among many that he was a man who could not be trusted. When he was elected Doge on January 14, 1779 in the first ballot, with 40 votes out of 41, it was popularly rumoured that he had bought the election using the money earned in Constantinople.

In any event, as the 119th Doge of Venice, he inherited a state in decline at a time of public disillusionment with the Republic’s leadership im general. The once-mighty maritime republic had lost its dominance in Mediterranean trade and was increasingly marginalised in European politics. He faced a tide of decline that, despite his diplomatic experience and rhetorical prowess, he was ultimately unable to reverse.   

Away from the political arena, Renier was twice married, first in 1733 to Giustina Donà, who died in 1751, and later Margherita Delmaz, who outlived him by nearly three decades, dying in 1817.

Despite the political turbulence of his reign, Renier remained a man of culture and intellect. It was said that he knew the Iliad and the Odyssey by heart and he was known to have translated works of Plato into Venetian, reflecting his humanist education and engagement with classical thought.

His tenure ended with his death in February 1789, from rheumatic fever, just months before the French Revolution would begin to reshape Europe. He was succeeded by Ludovico Manin, who would become the last Doge of Venice before Napoleon’s forces brought an end to the Republic in 1797.

The stunning Chiesa di San Stae opens on
to the Grand Canal in the heart of Venice

Travel tip:

San Stae, where Paolo Renier was born, is part of the Santa Croce sestiere, a quieter, slightly less congested quarter of Venice compared with tourist-heavy San Marco. Nonetheless, it has some important attractions, not least the parish church, the Chiesa di San Stae. A stunning Baroque church on the Grand Canal, redesigned in the early 18th century by Domenico Rossi, its façade - facing the Grand Canal midway between Rialto and Santa Lucia railway terminus - combines regimented Palladian lines with some elaborate sculptural decoration. Inside, there are works by Tiepolo, Piazzetta, and Ricci.  No more than two minutes’ walk from the church, walking away from the Grand Canal, the Palazzo Mocenigo houses a museum exploring Venetian fashion, perfume, and textiles. From there, it is just another three or four minutes to reach Campo San Giacomo da l’Orio, a peaceful square that has the authentic feel of residential Venice. The church from which the square takes its name is one of the oldest in the city, with a history going back to the 10th century.

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The pink Verona marble of the striking Doge's Palace
is a prominent feature of the Venice waterfront

Travel tip:

Standing beside the Basilica di San Marco - St Mark’s - facing the Venetian lagoon to the south and the Biblioteca Marciana to the west, across the Piazzetta, the Doge’s Palace is one of the most striking sights in Venice. Built in Venetian Gothic style, with its open arcades, delicate stonework and pink Verona marble, the imposing palace dates back to around 810 and was the political and ceremonial heart of the Venetian Republic for over 1,000 years. The first structure was thought to have been a fortified building with towers, reflecting the Doge’s military and executive authority. It was rebuilt in the 14th century, under Doge Pietro Gradenigo, as an opulent palace to reflect Venice’s growing wealth and power. During its time as the seat of Venice’s government, the palace housed the Senate, the Council of Ten, and State Inquisitors, as well as the Hall of Justice and Archives. The city’s prison, including the infamous Piombi and Pozzi cells, was connected to the palace by the Bridge of Sighs, added in 1600, which came to symbolise the final view of Venice for condemned prisoners.

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More reading:

The 15th century Doge immortalised by Byron and Verdi

The Doge who freed land for two of Venice’s most beautiful churches

The Doge who clamped down on Spanish spies

Also on this day:

Since 1681: Festival of Madonna della Salute

1688: The birth of architect and engraver Antonio Visentini

1854: The birth of Pope Benedict XV

1907: The birth of politician and partisan Giorgio Amendola

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20 November

Giorgio de Chirico – artist

Founder of the scuola metafisica movement

The artist Giorgio de Chirico, who founded the scuola metafisica (metaphysical school) of Italian art that was a profound influence on the country’s Surrealist movement in the early 20th century, died on this day in 1978 in Rome.  Although De Chirico, who was 90 when he passed away, was active for almost 70 years, it is for the paintings of the first decade of his career, between about 1909 and 1919, that he is best remembered.  It was during this period, his metaphysical phase, that he sought to use his art to express what might be called philosophical musings on the nature of reality, taking familiar scenes, such as town squares, and creating images that might appear in a dream, in which pieces of classical architecture would perhaps be juxtaposed with everyday objects in exaggerated form, the scene moodily atmospheric, with areas of dark shadow and bright light, and maybe a solitary figure.  Read more…

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Giampiero Combi - goalkeeper

Juventus stalwart who captained Italy’s 1934 World Cup winners

The footballer Giampiero Combi, who is considered to be one of the best Italian goalkeepers of all time, was born on November 20, 1902 in Turin.  Combi, who spent his entire career with his home-town club Juventus, was Italy’s captain at the 1934 World Cup, which Italy hosted and won, the team coached by Vittorio Pozzo and inspired by the revered Inter Milan striker Giuseppe Meazza defeating Czechoslovakia after extra time in the final of the 16-team tournament.  The achievement in front of excited Italian supporters in Rome capped a marvellous career for Combi, although it came about only by chance.  He had announced that he would retire at the end of the 1933-34 domestic season at the age of 31, having made 40 appearances for the azzurri. But Pozzo had persuaded him to be part of his squad to provide experienced cover for the emerging young Inter star Carlo Ceresoli.  Read more…

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Diocletian - Roman emperor

Restored stability but launched cruel purge

A Roman cavalry commander who went under the name of Diocles was proclaimed Emperor on this day in 284.  He was given the full name Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Augustus according to official inscriptions. He ruled as Diocletian.  He was sole emperor, albeit initially with a disputed claim to power, until 286, joint-emperor until 293, and co-emperor in a tetrarchy until 305.  Born at Salona, a coastal town in Dalmatia (now Solin in Croatia) into a family of humble status in 244, Diocletian rose to power through his military background.  After climbing through the ranks, he became cavalry commander to the Emperor Carus. After the death of Carus in 283, while on a campaign in Persia, power passed to his two sons, Numerian and Carinus.  When Numerian was allegedly murdered in 284, Diocletian was proclaimed as emperor. Read more…

Emilio Pucci – fashion designer

The heroic, sporting, creative genius behind the Pucci label

Don Emilio Pucci, Marchese di Barsento, who became a top fashion designer and politician, was born on this day in 1914 in Florence.  Pucci was born into one of the oldest families in Florence and lived and worked in the Pucci Palace in Florence for most of his life. His fashion creations were worn by such famous women as Marilyn Monroe, Sophia Loren and Jackie Kennedy.  A keen sportsman who swam, skied, fenced, played tennis and raced cars, Pucci was part of the Italian team at the 1932 Winter Olympics in New York, although he did not compete.  He studied at the University of Milan, the University of Georgia, and Reed College in Oregon, where he designed the clothes for the college skiing team.  Pucci was awarded an MA in social science from Reed, where he was known to be a staunch defender of the Fascist regime in Italy. Read more…

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Queen Margherita of Savoy

Princess and fashion icon who became Queen of Italy

Margherita Maria Teresa Giovanna of Savoy was born on this day in 1851 in Turin.  The little girl, who was to later become the Queen consort of Italy, was the daughter of Prince Ferdinand Duke of Genoa and Princess Elisabeth of Saxony. She was educated to a high standard and renowned as a charming person with a lively curiosity to learn. A tall, stately blonde, she was not considered a beauty but nonetheless had many admirers.  Having first been suggested to marry Prince Charles of Romania, she instead married her first cousin Umberto, Prince of Piedmont, in April 1868 when she was just 16. The following year she gave birth to Victor Emmanuel, Prince of Naples, who later became King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy. He was to be their only child.  Margherita was crowned Queen of Italy in Naples when Umberto succeeded his father to the throne in January 1878.  Read more…

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Book of the Day: Giorgio de Chirico: The Changing Face of Metaphysical Art, by Victoria Noel-Johnson

An innovative analysis of the artistic poetics of the master of metaphysical painting.  Through a selection of important works made during De Chirico’s career, this volume aims to conduct a critical revision of the artist’s complex practice for the centenary of his so-called volte-face in 1919, the year he was criticised for leaving metaphysical painting (1910-1918) in favour of styles and techniques inspired by Classicism and the grand masters.  Giorgio de Chirico: The Changing Face of Metaphysical Art promotes an innovative interpretation of the artist’s oeuvre (both metaphysical, where the traditional confines of linear time and space are replaced by the doctrine of cyclical coexistence), while an arrangement according to themes and not chronology underlines the idea that, despite the many changes in style, technique and subject, composition and colour tone, all of De Chirico’s works may offer tangible visions of the intangible philosophical concept of Metaphysics, advanced by Nietzsche in the late 1800s: constant metaphysics. The book gathers around 90 works from some of the most prestigious private museums and collections in Italy and from the Fondazione de Chirico. 

Victoria Noel-Johnson is an art curator and historian, specialising in early 20th-century Italian art. Recognised as one of the greatest experts of Giorgio de Chirico’s painting, from 2008 to 2017 she was the scientific curator at the Fondazione Giorgio e Isa de Chirico, where she managed the art collection and international exhibition programme for the Foundation.

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19 November

Pope Clement VII

Calamitous papacy of a vacillating Medici

Giulio di Giuliano de’ Medici, remembered as the unfortunate Pope who was imprisoned in Castel Sant’Angelo in Rome, was elected on this day in 1523 as Pope Clement VII.  Clement VII also went down in history for refusing to allow the King of England, Henry VIII, to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, causing England to break away from the Catholic Church forever.  One month before Giulio de Medici’s birth, his father was murdered in Florence Cathedral in what is referred to as the Pazzi conspiracy. His mother is believed to have been Fioretta Gorini, the daughter of a university professor, and Giulio was born illegitimately in May 1478 in Florence.  Giulio spent the first seven years of his life living with his godfather, the architect Antonio da Sangallo, the Elder. Then Lorenzo the Magnificent took over, raising him as one of his own sons, alongside Giovanni, the future Pope Leo X, Piero and Giuliano. Read more…

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Pino Rauti – politician and journalist

Writer chronicled the story of fascism in Italy

Pino Rauti, leader of the neo-fascist Social Idea Movement, was born Giuseppe Umberto Rauti on this day in 1926 in Cardinale in Calabria.  Rauti was to become a leading figure on the far right of Italian politics from 1948 until his death in 2012.  As a young man he had volunteered for the Guardia Nazionale Repubblicana of Benito Mussolini’s Italian Social Republic and he then went on to join the Spanish Foreign Legion.  After his return to Italy, Rauti joined the post-fascist Italian Social Movement (MSI). He became associated with Julius Evola, a leading fascist philosopher, and became editor of his journal, Imperium.  Rauti joined the staff of the Rome-based daily Il Tempo in 1953 and later became the Italian correspondent for the Aginter Press, a fake press agency set up in Portugal in 1966 to combat communism.  Read more…

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Giuseppe Volpi - businessman and politician

Founder of the Venice film festival

Businessman and politician Count Giuseppe Volpi of Misurata was born on this day in 1877 in Venice.  Volpi was responsible for bringing electricity to Venice and the north east of Italy in 1903 and had an influence on the development of Porto Marghera, the industrial complex across the lagoon from Venice.  In 1932, as president of the Venice Biennale, Volpi arranged the first Venice Film Festival. It took place between 6 and 21 August on the terrace of the Hotel Excelsior at the Venice Lido.  The first film to be shown at the festival was Rouben Mamoulian’s Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde.  The festival was considered a success and was held again in 1934 from 1 to 20 August, when it involved a competition for the first time.  In 1935 the Film Festival became a yearly event in Venice and the Coppa Volpi (Volpi Cup), an award for actors, was introduced for the first time.  Read more…

Luigi Beccali - Olympic athlete

Milanese runner brought home Italy's first track gold

Luigi Beccali, the first Italian to win an Olympic gold medal in track and field events, was born on this day in 1907 in Milan.  Although Italy had won gold medals in fencing and gymnastics in previous Games, Beccali's victory in the 1,500 metres at the 1932 Olympics in Los Angeles was the first time an Italian had won gold in a running event.  His victory came out of the blue since the field included several runners with top credentials, including New Zealand’s Jack Lovelock and America's Glenn Cunningham.  Beccali had a reputation as a determined competitor but his results were relatively modest next to those of the favourites.  However, in May of 1932 he had posted a mile time of four minutes 11.5 seconds in Milan which was only four tenths of a second slower than Cunningham's time in winning the 1932 National Collegiate Athletics Association championships. Read more…

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Johnny Dundee – world champion boxer

Sicilian changed his name to sound non-Italian

The boxer Johnny Dundee, who was a child when his family emigrated to the United States, was born in Sciacca, a town on the southwest coast of Sicily, on this day in 1893.  Dundee, regarded by many boxing historians as the first of the great Italian-American fighters, had more than 330 fights in a 22-year career in the ring.  At the peak of his career, in the 1920s, Dundee won both the world featherweight and world junior-lightweight titles.  Dundee’s real name is thought to have been Giuseppe Curreri, although some boxing records have his second name as Carrora.  The large numbers of Italian immigrants arriving in New York at around the turn of the 20th century, few of whom spoke any English, sometimes overwhelmed officers at the city’s processing station on Ellis Island and mistakes in recording details were common.  Read more…

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Book of the Day:  The Popes: A History, by John Julius Norwich

The Popes: A History traces the history of the oldest continuing institution in the world, tracing the papal line down the centuries from St Peter himself – traditionally (though by no means historically) the first pope – to Benedict XVI, who was pope from 2005 to 2013. Of the 280-odd holders of the supreme office, some have unques­tionably been saints; others have wallowed in unspeakable iniquity. One was said to have been a woman – and an English woman at that – her sex being revealed only when she improvidently gave birth to a baby during a papal procession. Pope Joan never existed (though the Church long believed she did) but many genuine pontiffs were almost as colourful: Formosus, for example, whose murdered corpse was exhumed, clothed in pontifical vestments, propped up on a throne and subjected to trial; or John XII of whom Gibbon wrote: 'his rapes of virgins and widows deterred female pilgrims from visiting the shrine of St Peter lest, in the devout act, they should be violated by his successor.’ A rich, authoritative book that does full justice to an important component of Italian history. 

John Julius Norwich was well known for his histories of Norman Sicily, Venice, the Byzantine Empire and the Mediterranean. The second Viscount Norwich, he was the son of the Conservative politician and diplomat Duff Cooper, later Viscount Norwich, and of Lady Diana Manners, a celebrated beauty and society figure.

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18 November

Gio Ponti - architect and designer

Visionary who shaped more than 100 buildings

Giovanni ‘Gio’ Ponti, one of the most influential architects and designers of the 20th century, was born on this day in 1891 in Milan.  During a career that spanned six decades, Ponti completed more than 100 architectural projects in Italy and abroad and also designed hundreds of pieces of furniture, decorative objects and household items.  As an architect, he made a significant impact on the appearance of his home city. The Pirelli Tower, which for 35 years was Italy’s tallest skyscraper, is the building for which Ponti is most famous, but it is only one of 46 in Milan.  He also designed the Montecatini buildings, the Torre Littoria (now known as the Torre Branca) in Parco Sempione, the San Luca Evangelista church in Via Andrea Maria Ampère, and Monument to the Fallen in Piazza Sant’Ambrogio.  Read more…

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Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora - military leader

General who became prime minister of Italy

Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora, a general and statesman who became the sixth prime minister of Italy, was born on this day in 1804 in Turin.  A graduate of the Turin Military Academy, La Marmora went on to play an important part in the Risorgimento, the movement to create a united Italy.  One of his older brothers was Alessandro Ferrero La Marmora, who founded the Italian army’s famous Bersaglieri corps, which entered French-occupied Rome in 1870 through a breach in the wall at Porta Pia and completed the unification of Italy.  Alfonso La Marmora went into the army in 1823 and first distinguished himself in the Italian wars of independence against Austria.  In 1848, La Marmora rescued the Sardinian king, Charles Albert, from Milanese revolutionaries who had resented the king’s armistice with the Austrians. Read more…

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Stefano Cardu - builder and architect

Sardinian who made fortune in Siam

The builder and architect Stefano Cardu, who enjoyed a lucrative relationship with the government of Siam in the late 19th century, was born on this day in 1849 in Cagliari, Sardinia.  Cardu built many important buildings in Siam - now Thailand - including a royal palace, the national military college and a luxury hotel to house foreign diplomats, as well as contributing to the country’s expanding infrastructure with roads and bridges.  The company he built up provided him with considerable wealth and when he returned to Cagliari he donated his collection of Siamese art, antiquities and other items to the city. They have been preserved in a museum that can be visited today.  It is not known with certainty how Cardu came to be in Siam. An obituary published in a newspaper in Sardinia claimed he was shipwrecked and swam ashore pursued by sharks. Read more…

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Attilio Bertolucci - poet

Pastoral scenes and family life inspired writer from Parma

Writer and poet Attilio Bertolucci was born on this day in 1911 in San Lazzaro, a hamlet in the countryside near Parma in Emilia-Romagna. Bertolucci wrote about his own family life and became renowned for the musicality of his language while describing humble places and human feelings. He became an important figure in 20th century Italian poetry and was the father of film directors Bernardo and Giuseppe Bertolucci.  Attilio Bertolucci was born into a middle-class, agricultural family. He began writing poems at the age of seven and published his first collection of poems, Sirio, when he was 18.  He went to study law at the University of Parma when he was 19, but soon gave it up in favour of literary studies. He also went to the University of Bologna to study art history. He went on to teach art history at the Maria Luigia boarding school in Parma.  Read more…

Enrico Vanzini - Dachau survivor

Italian internee forced to work for Nazis

Enrico Vanzini, a remarkable centenarian former soldier who survived seven months in a concentration camp after being forced to assist his captors as his fellow detainees were subjected to the horrors perpetrated by the Nazi regime, was born on this day in 1922 in the town of Fagnano Olona in Lombardy.  Vanzini, who was stationed with the Italian army in Greece for much of World War Two, was arrested in September 1943 after swearing allegiance to the King of Italy rather than Benito Mussolini’s Republic of Salò.  He spent the remainder of the conflict as a prisoner of war in Germany, at the end of which he was forced to work as a member of the so-called Sonderkommando, a group of prisoners made to collaborate with the Nazi SS in the extermination of mainly Jewish detainees in their death camps.  Read more…

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Gianni Mazzocchi - publisher

Business success marred by personal heartache

The publisher Gianni Mazzocchi, a magazine editor-proprietor who founded more than 15 national magazines, of which several titles, including Il Mondo, L'Europeo and Quattroruote, continued to be published long after his death, was born on this day in 1906 in Ascoli Piceno in Marche.  Mazzocchi became a publisher by accident after quitting university to support his family. But through a combination of boundless energy and a chance meeting with the architect and designer Gio Ponti, he launched himself as a magazine proprietor with enormous success.  His life was bookended by personal heartache. His early years were marred when illness and misfortune struck his family. Towards the end of his life he suffered the ordeal of having his eldest daughter kidnapped and was then widowed, the stress of the episode blamed for his wife’s death. Read more…

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Eleonora Gonzaga – Holy Roman Empress

Pious princess who promoted the arts and education

Eleonora Gonzaga, Princess of Mantua, Nevers and Rethel, was born on this day in 1630 in Mantua.  She grew up to marry the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand III, and established a reputation as one of the most educated and virtuous women of her time.  Eleonora became fascinated by religious poetry, founded a literary academy and was a patron of musical theatre.  As Holy Roman Empress she developed the cultural and spiritual life at the Imperial Court in Vienna, continuing the work of her great aunt, also called Eleonora, who had introduced opera to Vienna in the early part of the 17th century.  Vienna subsequently became recognised as the music capital of Europe.  Eleonora was the second child of Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers, who was heir to the Duchy of Mantua, and Maria Gonzaga, who was heiress to the Duchy of Montferrat.  Read more…

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St Peter’s Basilica consecrated

Artists helped design magnificent church

The stunning Renaissance Basilica of St Peter in Rome was completed and consecrated on this day in 1626.  Believed to be the largest church in the world, Basilica Papale di San Pietro in Vaticano was built to replace the original fourth century basilica that had been constructed on what was believed to be the burial site of St Peter.  Bramante, Michelangelo and Bernini were among the many artistic geniuses who contributed to the design of the church, which is considered to be a masterpiece of Renaissance architecture.  Located within Vatican City, the Basilica is approached along Via della Conciliazione and through the vast space of St Peter’s Square.  The magnificent central dome of the Basilica dominates the skyline of Rome and the balcony above the entrance, where the Pope makes appearances, is instantly recognisable. Read more…

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Book of the Day: Gio Ponti: 1891-1979 Master of Lightness, by Graziella Roccella

Italian architect and designer Gio Ponti is difficult to pin down. With an extraordinarily prolific output and eclectic style, his oeuvre remains one of the most diverse and groundbreaking in design history. Ponti’s key works are spread throughout this extensive overview, including structures of all kinds, from small residential dwellings to high-rise buildings, schools, and office blocks.  The home was one of Ponti’s recurring interests and central areas of innovation. His talent for total design―a careful consideration of both interior and exterior space―is charted in the glossy reproductions, floor plans, and drawings featured in this edition. Ponti’s colorful, carefree, and elegant spaces blended an expressive neoclassicism with emerging modernist sensibility.  The founder and nearly lifelong editor of domus magazine never ceased to develop and reinvent his style. From the Denver Art Museum to his collection of churches, from bespoke homeware to the symbol of modern Milan, the Pirelli Tower, this monograph provides an introduction to Ponti’s exuberant creativity and illustrious career.  Gio Ponti: 1891-1979 Master of Lightness is part of Taschen’s Basic Art series. 

Graziella Roccella lives in Turin where she works as freelance architect and assistant professor in architectural design. She works in the field of interior design and residential buildings with a special regard to sustainable architecture.

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