Quintino Sella - economist, scientist and mountaineer

Statesman who laid financial foundations for unified Italy

Quintino Sella had a major
influence on the unified Italy 

Quintino Sella, a politician and economist widely credited with building the foundations for economic stability in post-unification Italy, was born on this day in 1827 in Mosso, a small town in the province of Biella in northern Piedmont.

Sella served as Minister of Finance under three governments between 1862 and 1872.

The newly unified Italy inherited an enormous budget deficit from the collection of disparate regional states that preceded it, but Sella was instrumental in steering the country toward fiscal stability by enforcing major public spending cuts, securing early land tax payments, and pushing through the controversial "grist tax" - a tax on flour - to balance the national budget. 

He also influenced the shape of the new nation by persuading the king, Victor Emmanuel II, to seize control of Rome in 1870 when the French garrison that was protecting the independence of the city under Pope Pius IX was withdrawn to fight in the Franco-Prussian War.

Piedmontese troops led by General Raffaele Cadorna broke through the city walls near Porta Pia, enabling Victor Emmanuel to take up residence in the Quirinale Palace and declare unification complete.

Away from politics, Sella was a passionate climber. He founded the Italian Alpine Club in Turin in 1863, helping to popularise mountaineering in Italy.

A scientist with a detailed knowledge of mining and minerals, he also  promoted and helped found the Italian Geological Society.

Sella was born in the hamlet of Sella di Valle Superiore in the municipality of Mosso, about 20km (12 miles) from the small city of Biella and just over 90km (54 miles) northeast of the regional capital of Turin.

He was the eighth of 20 children born to Maurizio and Rosa Sella. The Sella family had been active in the wool processing industry since the 17th century.  The family had a strong religious vocation and after Maurizio acquired some land on the bank of the Cervo stream in Biella in 1835, he opened silk and woolen mills which provided employment and a refuge for young women who found themselves in difficult circumstances. 

The Sella family had their own living quarters within the mill.

Quintino’s father earmarked him as a future head of the mechanical sector of the company and steered him towards the study of hydraulic engineering. After obtaining his degree with honours at the University of Turin, he furthered his education at the prestigious École des Mines in Paris.

Sella served as Minister of
Finance in three governments

He remained in the academic world as a distinguished professor of mathematics and mineralogy at the Polytechnic University of Turin, gaining an international reputation in crystallography.

Sella’s political career began with his participation in councils and commissions in the education sector before he was encouraged to stand for election to the Chamber of Deputies for Cossato, near Biella. 

Once elected, he quickly established himself as one of the most prominent figures aligned with the Historical Right. After a spell as secretary general at the Ministry of Education, he was appointed Minister of Finance on three occasions, in the governments of  Urbano Rattazzi (1862), Alfonso La Marmora (1864-65) and Giovanni Lanza (1869-7).

It was under Marmora that he devoted himself to balancing the state budget, implementing the necessary policy of economies and tax increases on consumption and income, sometimes resorting to unpopular measures. 

Easily the most controversial of these was the so-called grist tax - Tassa sul Macinato - introduced in 1868. A tax on milling grain, it applied to wheat, corn, rye, and oats.

However, the tax provoked a huge public backlash. It was labelled a tax on poverty, disproportionately harming the poor.  After violent protests erupted across Italy in 1869, the government deployed the military to crush the uprisings. More 250 protestors were killed, another 1,000 wounded and thousands arrested. 

Saluzzo in Piedmont, with the distinctive shape
of the Monviso peak in the background

The grist tax caused the fall of the La Marmora government but remained in force until it was abolished under the left-wing government of Agostino Depretis in 1883. Sella was ultimately credited with achieving his objective of pulling the newly unified Kingdom of Italy out of near-bankruptcy and putting it on a stable financial path.  

Despite his involvement in politics, Sella always made time for his mountaineering hobby. In 1863, he led the first all-Italian team to reach the summit of Mont Viso, also known as Monviso, the pyramid-shaped highest peak of the Cottian Alps in Piedmont at 3,841m (12,601ft). This feat proved Italian climbers could compete with British alpinists. 

In the same year as his Monviso success, Sella founded the Club Alpino Italiano (Italian Alpine Club) in Turin. It aimed to map the Alps and foster national pride. He used his climbs to study Alpine geology, mineralogy, and glaciers. 

Married with seven children, Quintino Sella died 1884 at the age of 56 in his home inside the wool mill and was buried in the monumental cemetery of Oropa, about 15km (nine miles) from Biella, in a monumental family tomb in the shape of a pyramid. 

Piazza della Cisterna is a beautiful square in
Biella's elevated Biella Piazzo area 

Travel tip:

Biella, the nearest city to Sella’s home, is a well-established municipality of almost 45,000 inhabitants in the foothills of the Biellese Alps, about 85km (53 miles) northeast of Turin and slightly more than 100m (62 miles) west of Milan. The city is divided into two levels: Biella Piano (the lower, bustling plain) and Biella Piazzo (the elevated, medieval heart), the latter accessible by a free funicular railway, giving access to its cobbled streets, terraced panoramic views, and aristocratic palaces such as Palazzo La Marmora and Palazzo Gromo Losa. The lower town is not without attractions, which include a Roman baptistery from the early 1000s - Battistero di San Giovanni Battista - in Piazza Duomo, adjacent to the church and convent of San Sebastian. Wool and textiles have been associated with the town since the 13th century and it was once described as ‘the Manchester of Italy’. Although the best years of the industry have now passed, with many mills and factories closed, brands such as Cerruti 1881, Ermenegildo Zegna, Vitale Barberis Canonico and Fila still have a presence.

Book your stay in Biella with Hotels.com

One of the Ricetto di Candelo's
typical cobbled streets

Travel tip:

Cossato, where Quintino Sella stood for the Chamber of Deputies, is a prominent town in the province of Biella, the second-largest town in the province by both land area and population, housing roughly 14,000 residents. Over the centuries, Cossato’s identity became intertwined with Northern Italy's textile boom. The town evolved into a centre for wool and textile processing. While it has modernised over time - evidenced by a major recent architectural renovation of its central town square - it maintains traditional Piedmontese charm, with its town centre extending along major roadways and giving way to numerous historic hamlets scattered across the surrounding hills.  Cossato serves as a gateway to the unique landscapes of the Biellese territory, popular for mountain biking and hiking, characterized by dramatic, heavily-eroded orange-red rock formations. Located just five minutes away, the Ricetto di Candelo is a remarkably preserved 14th-century fortified medieval village, complete with pebbled streets, ancient turrets, and artisan shops. Cossato sits on the Biella-to-Novara railway line, which keeps the town well-connected for commuters and tourists. 

Find accommodation in Biella province with Expedia

More reading:

Why the Battle of Bezzecca was a significant victory in the push for unification

The general who founded the Italian army's famous Bersaglieri corps

The 1870 capture of Rome that completed Italian unification

Also on this day:

1573: The death of architect Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola

1806: The birth of Sicilian revolutionary Michele Amari

1901: The birth of actor and film director Vittorio De Sica

1911: The birth of composer and librettist Gian Carlo Menotti

1990: Italy beat England to finish third in 1990 World Cup

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Execution of four Carbonari in Ravenna

The day the city was draped in black

Tancredi Scarpelli's depiction of the 
scene following the executions

Four members of the secret society known as I Carbonari (the charcoal burners) were executed by hanging in a public square in Ravenna on this day in 1828.

The executions, thought to have taken place in one of the main squares in the centre of the city, possibly Piazza del Popolo, were carried out by the notorious papal executioner, Giovanni Battista Bugatti, who was nicknamed Mastro Titta, a slang version of maestro di giustizia, master of justice.

The four victims were found guilty of plotting to kidnap and assassinate Cardinal Agostino Rivarola, who had been sent to Ravenna to defend papal authority and clamp down on revolutionaries. 

Bugatti was the official executioner for the Papal States from 1796 to 1865. While working for six different popes, he executed 516 people by either beating, beheading or hanging them.

On this occasion in Ravenna, acting on behalf of the Papal Legate, he conducted the executions of Luigi Zanoli, Ortolani Angiolo, Gaetano Montanari, and Gaetano Rambelli.

The four unfortunate men were all believed to be members of the anticlerical Carbonari society.

The Vatican’s enforcer in the Romagna, Cardinal Rivarola, had issued mass condemnations against I Carbonari, and as a result, in 1826, shots had been fired at his carriage and a member of his entourage had died, although Rivarola had escaped unhurt.

Following an investigation into the incident ordered by Pope Leo XII, the death penalty had been dealt out to the four people accused of carrying out the shooting.

On the day of the execution, the square where it took place was completely occupied by the military to prevent anyone from getting near the gallows.

All shops, and the windows and doors of houses were closed, and many of them were draped in black. The streets were completely empty, reflecting the mood of the population, as the wagon containing the prisoners made its way through the deserted city surrounded by soldiers.

Agostino Rivarola, the cardinal who
survived an attempted assassination

The prisoners all refused the offer of confessing to two friars who were present at the gallows before they were put to death. As they mounted the steps to the gallows the four men shouted: ‘Viva Italia! Down with the papacy,’ before they were hanged.

The Carbonari was an informal network of secret revolutionary societies active in Italy from about 1800 to 1831. They were a focus for people who were unhappy with the repressive political situation in Italy. The secret societies played their part in the process leading to the Risorgimento and eventually to Italian unification.

They adopted the name 'Carbonari' because they used the charcoal-burning trade in the forested, mountainous regions of the Apennines, where the group originated, as cover for their clandestine meetings.

The English poet Lord Byron lived for two of the six years he spent in Italy in Ravenna, to be near Teresa Guiccioli, the young, beautiful wife of Count Alessandro Guiccioli, who he had been introduced to at a social gathering in Venice. During his time in Ravenna, he enjoyed the excitement of being part of I Carbonari, after being introduced to the society by Teresa’s father, Ruggiero Gamba, and her brother, Pietro Gamba.

Byron relished the secret meetings in pine forests outside Ravenna and even allowed members of the group to hide weapons and ammunition in his apartment. If Byron had been found to be housing the weapons, he would have been arrested and almost certainly imprisoned, or expelled from Austrian-controlled territory, but his fellow Carbonari believed he was less likely to be condemned to death because he was an English Lord.

The poet believed in the cause of fighting for a free Italy, but he left Ravenna to follow Teresa and her father and brother, after they had been exiled  to Florence, without ever having the chance to take part in a revolt against the Austrians. 

Giovanni Battista Bugatti had become the official executioner of the Papal States at the age of 17 and served the popes Pius VI, Pius VII, Leo XII, Pius VIII, Gregory XVI and Pius IX. Charles Dickens wrote about Bugatti in Pictures of Italy, after watching one of his executions in 1845. 

When Bugatti retired from his work, he was given a residence and a pension by the Pope and he wrote his memoirs. He died in 1869 in Senigallia in Le Marche, the town where he had been born. A book claiming to be his memoirs was published in 1891. The memoirs devoted an entire chapter to the execution of Leonida Montanari in Ravenna in 1825, who was the brother of Gaetano Montanari, one of the four men executed in Ravenna on 13 May 1828.

The Basilica di Sant Vitale is
famous for its stunning mosaics

Travel tip:

Ravenna in Emilia-Romagna, was the capital city of the western Roman empire in the fifth century. It is known for its well-preserved late Roman and Byzantine architecture and has eight UNESCO world heritage sites. The Basilica of San Vitale is one of the most important examples of early Christian Byzantine art and architecture in Europe. Ravenna also houses the tomb of the poet Dante Alighieri, who lived and died there after he was exiled from Florence. Byron was said to have found the tomb of the poet inspirational and would sit writing his poetry close to it while he was living in the city. Florence has repeatedly asked for Dante’s remains to be sent back to them, but Ravenna has always refused to relinquish them.  Ravenna’s cuisine reflects Romagna’s rustic traditions. Signature dishes include piadina, the region’s soft flatbread, cappelletti in broth or ragù, and passatelli, made from breadcrumbs, cheese, and nutmeg. Local grills feature castrato (mutton), which is highly prized in the region for its bright red colour, white fat, and intense flavour.  Mussels from Marina di Ravenna feature on menus as well. 

Piazza del Popolo was the site of
Ravenna's public executions

Travel tip:

Piazza del Popolo, where public executions took place, is at the heart of the city of Ravenna and for more than 700 years has been home to the palaces of power, such as the town hall and the prefecture building, which was once home to the Papal Legation. Now a lively square with open-air cafés and bars, it is the convergence point of many streets. It has a Venetian feel because Venice added twin columns similar to the pair in Piazzetta San Marco during the period they ruled over Ravenna. The Venetian authorities governed the city from the Palazzetta Veneziana between 1441 and 1509.  The origin of the square dates back to the late 13th century, when the Da Polenta family became masters of the city. The palatial residence of Bernardino da Polenta became the political hub of the city and remained so until it was demolished in 1681, when it was replaced by the current Town Hall.

More reading:

How Lord Byron became a Ravenna revolutionary

Gabriele Rossetti, the poet and academic who became a key Carbonari figure

The strange life of Mastro Titta, souvenir seller and executioner

Also on this day:

1726: The death of composer and singer Francesco Pistocchi

1804: The birth of Venetian patriot Daniele Manin

1909: The first Giro d’Italia

1935: The birth of entrepreneur Luciano Benetton

1938: The birth of politician Giuliano Amato

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King Francis II of the Two Sicilies

Last ruler of Naples wanted to help the poor

Francis II ruled for the final
year before unification

Francis II, the last King of the Two Sicilies until he was deposed in 1861, when Italy was about to become a unified country, died on this day in 1894 in Arco in Trentino-Alto Adige. 

Although he reigned over his subjects for one year only, King Francis is remembered as a humane ruler who believed he had a duty to help the needy. He also had a strong Christian faith, and he was declared a Servant of God by Pope Francis in 2020.

Born in 1836, Francis II was the only son and heir of King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies, with his first wife, Maria Christina of Savoy. He was christened Francesco d’Assisi Maria Leopoldo. Sadly, his mother died only five days after giving birth to him.

Five years later, King Ferdinand married Maria Theresa of Austria and she became stepmother to the young Francis, who was said to have feared her, but was also greatly influenced by her.

Francis married Duchess Maria Sophie of Bavaria in 1859 in Bavaria. They had one daughter, Maria Cristina Pia, born after they had been married for ten years, but she died after just three months

After the death of his father, Francis ascended to his throne in May 1859. He reigned over the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies - Regno delle Due Sicilie - which encompassed all the Italian peninsula south of the Papal States, as well as Sicily. This area was under the control of the House of Bourbon from 1816 to 1861.

It was called The Two Sicilies, because the Kingdom of Naples had also been known officially as the Kingdom of Sicily and, collectively, they had been referred to as ‘both Sicilies’.

Francis is recorded to have appointed committees to improve conditions in prisons and he lowered taxes to help poor people. He ordered wheat stocks to be distributed to poor people at a low price, letting the state bear most of the cost, and he founded schools and universities.

Francis II with his wife, Duchess 
Maria Sophie of Bavaria

He was planning Government sponsored steam-mills to offer free grain grinding to benefit the poor and was also going to enlarge the railway system, when the arrival of Giuseppe Garibaldi’s troops halted his projects. His admirers believe his achievements during his brief time on the throne showed what a good ruler he would have been for the south of Italy.

After Garibaldi crossed the Strait of Messina and advanced on Naples in 1860 in his bid to unify Italy, Francis II and his wife, Maria Sophie, sailed to Gaeta to join up with the bulk of his troops. The following day, Garibaldi entered Naples and formed a provisional Government.

Garibaldi’s troops defeated a Neapolitan force at the Battle of Volturno and captured Capua. When only Gaeta, Messina, and Civitella del Tronto still held out against him, Garibaldi laid siege to Gaeta. 

Francis and Maria Sophie behaved with great courage and it was not until February 1861, when the French fleet that had been protecting them from an attack launched from the sea was withdrawn, that they finally gave in.

After Francis II had been deposed, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ceased to exist and its territory was absorbed into the Kingdom of Sardinia, which later became the Kingdom of Italy.

Francis and Maria Sophie moved to Rome to live as guests of the Pope where they maintained a Government in exile that continued to be recognised by some Catholic countries in Europe. Just before the Italian troops moved in to occupy Rome in 1870, Francis and his wife disbanded their Government and embarked on a wandering life, living in parts of Austria, France, and Bavaria.

In 1894, Francis died at Arco in Trentino-Alto Adige. Maria Sophie survived him for another 31 years before she died in Munich.

After the death of Francis, his half-brother, Prince Alfonso, became the pretender to the throne of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 

The case for the beatification and canonisation of King Francis II was introduced in December 2020 by Cardinal Crescenzio Sepe, the Archbishop of Naples. When the Pope made King Francis a Servant of God, it was seen as the first step towards him becoming a Saint.

The award winning 1989 film, O Re, directed by Luigi Magni, was loosely based on the life of Francis II. The actor Giancarlo Giannini played the part of King Francis.

The ruins of the Castello di Arco sit on a rocky
outcrop overlooking the town of Arco

Travel tip:

Arco is a small comune - municipality - in the region of Trentino-Alto Adige, just 5km (3 miles) from the northern tip of Lake Garda. Its main claim to fame is being the place where King Francis II died. The ruined medieval Castello di Arco,  built on top of a rocky spur, is one of the important sights in the town and featured in a watercolour by Albrecht Durer. The 16th century palace, Palazzo Marchetti, has a portal that is attributed to Giulio Romano. Tourism is a major part of the local economy with many Germans and Austrians coming over the Brenner pass to visit Arco. Wind surfing on Lake Garda and rock climbing on the city walls are popular activities for visitors. Arco also hosts one of the most popular Christmas markets in Trentino-Alto Adige.

Stay in Arco with Expedia

A view of the harbour and waterfront at Gaeta,
on the coast between Rome and Naples

Travel tip:

Gaeta, where Francis II went with his wife as Garibaldi advanced on Naples, is a small city in the province of Latina in Lazio, 120 km (75 miles) south of Rome, set on a promontory stretching towards the Gulf of Gaeta. Today it is a fishing and oil seaport and a popular resort with tourists. It has a huge Aragonese-Angevine Castle, which dates back to the sixth century and the Cathedral of Assunta e Sant’Erasmo, which was built over a more ancient church and consecrated by Pope Paschal II in 1106.  Other attractions include the Monte Orlando natural park, a protected area with Roman ruins, hiking trails, and panoramic views, featuring the Mausoleum of Lucius Munatius Plancus.  Gaeta was where Pope Pius IX was given a shelter by Francis’s father, Ferdinand II, after being besieged in Palazzo del Quirinale in Rome, in 1848, having lost control of the Papal States to revolutionaries.

Gaeta hotels from Hotels.com

More reading:

Francis I, the ruler who saw the Austrians from Naples

The architect who helped Bourbon king Charles VII transform Naples   

The Bonaparte who was made King of Naples

Also on this day:

1660: The birth of Saint Veronica Giuliani

1848: The birth of tyre maker Giovanni Battista Pirelli

1888: The birth of tenor Tito Schipa

1983: Pope John Paul II visits would-be killer in prison

1985: Terror attack at Fiumicino Airport

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Anita Garibaldi – national heroine of Italy

Brave wife of Giuseppe Garibaldi was a freedom fighter

Anita Garibaldi met her future husband
in Brazil and they married in Uruguay

Anita Garibaldi, the Brazilian wife of Italy’s revolutionary hero Giuseppe Garibaldi, died in the arms of her husband on this day in 1849 in Mandriole, near Ravenna, in Emilia-Romagna.

She was pregnant and also ill with malaria, but she was having to retreat from Austrian and French troops with the Garibaldian Legion. After her death, her body had to be hurriedly buried, and it was said to have been later dug up by a dog.

A Brazilian revolutionary, Anita had fought alongside Garibaldi in his campaigns, after meeting him in her home country in 1839.

She was born Ana Maria di Jesus Ribeiro in 1821 in Laguna in Brazil. She was the third of ten children born to a poor family. At the age of 14 she was forced to marry, but her husband later abandoned her to join the Brazilian Imperial Army.

Anita met Garibaldi, who was a sailor of Ligurian descent, after he had left Europe in 1836 and was fighting on behalf of the separatist Riograndense republic in southern Brazil. They fell in love immediately and she joined him on his ship, the Rio Pardo.

She soon saw military action in battles at Imbituba, and Laguna, during which she fought at the side of her lover.

Anita was said to have been a skilled horsewoman, who taught Garibaldi about the Gaucho culture of the Pampas of southern Brazil. It was claimed by one of Garibaldi’s comrades that she had the strength and courage of a man, with the charm and tenderness of a woman. She was reputed to have been very beautiful with an oval-shaped face and remarkable eyes.

During one battle, Anita and Garibaldi became separated and Anita was captured. Her guards told her Garibaldi was dead, but she did not believe them. She asked if she could search the battleground for his body and they agreed, but she could not find him, which gave her hope.

Garibaldi and Anita fought together
in the defence of Rome in 1849

When she came across a horse, she mounted it and escaped at a gallop. The soldiers chased her and shot and killed her horse and so she waded into a river to escape from them. 

After they had given her up for dead, she spent four days wandering, without food or drink, in woodland in the area, until she encountered someone who gave her something to eat.

Eventually, Anita was able to get in touch with the rebels and she was reunited with Garibaldi in Vacaria. 

A few months later, their first child, Menotti, was born. He had a skull deformity resulting from Anita’s fall from the horse, but he grew up to be a freedom fighter and accompanied Garibaldi on his campaigns in Italy.

In 1841, Anita and Garibaldi moved to Montevideo in Uruguay and they were married there in 1842. They went on to have another three children.

After Garibaldi took command of the Uruguayan fleet, Anita participated in his defence of Montevideo against Argentina in 1847.

Anita accompanied Garibaldi when he returned to Italy to join in the revolutions of 1848, where he fought against the Austrians.

In 1849, Garibaldi joined in the defence of the newly-proclaimed Roman Republic against Neapolitan and French intervention. But after Rome fell to the French at the end of June that year, Garibaldi and Anita found themselves forced to flee with their troops from the French and Austrian soldiers.

A magazine illustration imagines Anita with
Garibaldi in the last moments of her life

After Anita’s death in the farmhouse in Mandriole, Garibaldi continued to honour her memory. When he hailed Victor Emmanuel II as King of the newly-united Italy, 12 years later, he was wearing Anita’s striped scarf over his south American poncho.

Anita Garibaldi is recognised as a national heroine in Brazil and has squares named after her and a museum dedicated to her memory,

In Italy, her legacy was used by Mussolini in 1932, when there was a discussion about removing Garibaldi’s statue from the top of the Gianicolo. 

Mussolini not only refused to remove the statue of Garibaldi, but also said he would erect a statue of Anita Garibaldi on the same hill. The resulting statue depicted her mounted on a rearing horse holding her baby son close to her, while brandishing a pistol, as she leads her husband’s army to victory.

Garibaldi carries Anita through the 
Comacchio lagoons (Pietro Bauvier)

Travel tip:

Fattore Guiccioli, the farmhouse where Anita Garibaldi died in Mandriole, is in the countryside between Casal Borsetti and Sant’Alberto, just south of the lagoons of Comacchio. Garibaldi stumbled across the farmhouse while looking for shelter for him and Anita as they made their escape across Romagna. The building now houses an exhibition of relics and mementoes of Garibaldi’s flight through the area. There is a replica of Anita’s death bed, as the original one was burnt during the Nazi occupation of Italy during World War II, and there are two paintings dedicated to her. A memorial stone marks the site of her original burial place near the farmhouse. 

The tomb of Anita Garibaldi on the Gianicolo
hill in Rome, topped by an equestrian statue

Travel tip:

The Gianicolo, or Janiculum, one of the hills outside the walls of ancient Rome, has monuments to many Italian patriots who fought during the Risorgimento for the unification of Italy. It is regarded as one of the best locations to enjoy a scenic view of the centre of the city, with its domes and bell towers. When Anita’s statue was erected there in 1932, the event was celebrated with a three-day commemoration ceremony. On the first day, Anita’s remains were brought to Rome, on the second day, her remains were interred in the base of the monument built in her memory, which was placed near the equestrian statue of her husband, and on the third day, her monument was inaugurated officially by Mussolini.

 

Also on this day:

1463: The birth of banker Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici

1470: The birth of noblewoman Lucrezia Maria Romola de’ Medici

1590: The birth of Pope Urban VII

1994: The death of politician Giovanni Spadolini

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Urbano Rattazzi – prime minister

Unpopular politician had anticlerical views

Urbano Rattazzi twice served
as prime minister of the new Italy

Urbano Pio Francesco Rattazzi, the third prime minister of the newly unified Kingdom of Italy, who is remembered for his clashes with the Italian people’s hero, Giuseppe Garibaldi, was born on this day in 1808 in Alessandria in the region of Piedmont.

Rattazzi became prime minister in 1862, succeeding Bettino Ricasoli, and he held the office for nine months until his behaviour towards Garibaldi led to him being driven from office. 

He served as prime minister again in 1867 from April to October, but was forced by King Victor Emmanuel II to resign again because of the Italian people’s reaction to his treatment of Garibaldi.

Rattazzi was married to the French novelist, Laetitia Marie Wyse Bonaparte, who was the great niece of the Emperor Napoleon I, and they had one daughter, Romana, who was born in 1871. He also had a nephew, Urbano Rattazzi Iuniore, who was appointed Minister of the Royal House during the reign of Umberto I.

As a young man, Urbano Rattazzi studied law in Turin and ran a successful legal practice in Turin and in Casale, in Piedmont.

From 1848, he represented Alessandria in the Sardinian Chamber of Deputies in Turin. He had allied himself to the Liberals, and using his debating powers, he contributed to the defeat of Cesare Balbo, who was then prime minister of Sardinia.

Under Sardinian Prime Minister Vincenzo Gioberti, Rattazzi became Minister of the Interior and his first act was to send a ministerial circular to all the bishops of the Kingdom, threatening them with arrest if they did not stop preaching against the new institutions. 

Garibaldi, whose popularity with the 
people was not shared by Rattazzi

After the fall of Gioberti, Rattazzi was asked to form a new cabinet, but he lasted in office for only a few weeks because the army of the Kingdom of Sardinia was beaten by the Austrians at the Battle of Novara in 1849 and he had to resign.

With the Moderate Liberals, Rattazzi formed a coalition with the centre right, who were backed by Count Camillo Cavour, which brought about the fall of the cabinet led by Massimo d’Azeglio in 1852.

Rattazzi benefited from his alliance with Cavour and became Minister of Justice and Minister of the Interior. He suppressed monastic orders and restricted the influence of religious associations, demonstrating his anticlerical views. He had to resign in 1858 because of public opinion, but he later served in the cabinet of Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora before retiring in 1860.

After Italian unification in 1861, Rattazzi became president of the lower chamber in the first parliament of the newly unified kingdom. He then succeeded Ricasoli as prime minister, retaining for himself the portfolios of foreign affairs and the interior. He delivered the funeral eulogy for Cavour, after he died in 1861.

Rattazzi's government experience lasted a few months during which emerged the ‘Roman question’ - the conflict between the Papacy and the Italian government over the status of Rome and the Papal States following unification. 

In the summer of 1862, Garibaldi tried to promote an expedition of volunteers to occupy Rome and put an end to the power of the Pope. Rattazzi, who was initially in favour of Garibaldi's action, changed his mind and called in the army. 

In the resulting Battle of Aspromonte, the army dispersed the volunteers and arrested Garibaldi, who had been wounded during the clashes. Rattazzi was condemned by public opinion, which was on the side of Garibaldi and he was forced to resign. He was succeeded by Luigi Carlo Farini. 

Rattazzi held the office of prime minister again for a few months in 1867. But then Garibaldi penetrated the Papal States with a contingent of volunteers and was later defeated by the Pope’s troops and a French expeditionary force. This led to the collapse of Rattazzi's majority, and Rattazzi was forced by King Victor Emmanuel II to resign. He was succeeded by Luigi Federico Menabrea. 

Urbano Rattazzi died of liver cancer at his villa at Frosinone in Lazio in 1873. He was 64 years old. After ceremonies in Rome and Alessandria, Rattazzi's embalmed body was buried in the monumental cemetery in his home town.

The commemorative plaque that marks Urbano
Rattazzi's place of birth in Alessandria

Travel tip:

Alessandria, where Rattazzi was born and is buried, is an historic city in Piedmont, situated about 90km (56 miles) to the southeast of Turin. There is a plaque above the entrance door to Rattazzi’s birthplace in the street now called Via Urbano Rattazzi, at number 43. After Napoleon won the Battle of Marengo in 1800, Alessandria became part of French territory and was made the capital of the area by the French. It became part of the Kingdom of Sardinia again in 1814 and later part of the Kingdom of Italy. One of its most important buildings is the Cittadella di Alessandria, a star fort and citadel built in the 18th century. Today it is one of the best preserved fortifications of that era and one of the few fortifications in Europe still in their original environment, with no buildings blocking the views of the ramparts, or a road that surrounds the ditches.  Alessandria suffered extensive Allied bombing in World War Two but many areas have been rebuilt. The city is now a major Italian railway hub. 

The facade of the Cathedral of
Santa Maria Assunta in Frosinone

Travel tip:

Frosinone, where Urbano Rattazzi died, is about 75 kilometres (47 miles) southeast of Rome in Lazio. It is the main city of the Valle Latina that extends from south of Rome to Cassino, the site of the Abbey of Monte Cassino and the famous battle in World War II. The city of Frosinone remained part of the Papal States and did not become part of the new Kingdom of Italy until as late as September 1870, three days before Italian troops were finally able to enter Rome at Porta Pia and install Victor Emanuel II in the Quirinale Palace. The Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta, located at the highest point of the hill on which the historic centre of the city stands, is the most important church in Frosinone. With a marble facade, it has a 63m (207ft) bell tower which has been adopted as an emblem of the city.

Also on this day:

First Martyrs’ Day

1916: The birth of actor Mario Carotenuto

1932: The laying of the first stone of the Fascist city of Latina

1961: The birth of novelist Gianrico Carofiglio

1986: The birth of Allegra Versace, niece of Gianni

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Pino Aprile – journalist

Author wrote about unification from the point of view of the South

Pino Aprile has enjoyed a long
career as a writer and journalist

Writer Pino Aprile, who became internationally famous as the author of Terroni, a book outlining 'all that has been done to ensure that the Italians of the south became Southerners', was born on this day in 1950 in Gioia del Colle, in Puglia.

Terroni was first published in 2010, a year before Italy celebrated the 150th anniversary of becoming a unified country. Over 200,000 copies were sold in Italy and an English version of Terroni, translated by Ilaria Marra Rosiglioni, was published in 2011.

With the stage set for the tricolore to fly proudly over a year of celebrations in Italy, Terroni appeared just before the party started, to provide readers with stark examples of what Aprile claims happened to people living in the south of the country when troops fighting for Victor Emmanuel II arrived in their towns and villages.

The catalogue of alleged massacres, executions, rapes, and torture that Aprile details in Terroni are hard to read about. Aprile himself says that at times he was tempted to walk away from the whole project. But he persevered because he was determined to set out the South’s version of events during the Risorgimento in Italy for readers to consider. 

At the beginning of the book there is a publisher’s note explaining that the singular noun terrone is an offensive term used by people in northern Italy to describe those from southern Italy. The word is from the term terra, meaning dirt or land, and to call someone a terrone implies that they are ignorant, uneducated, lazy, unwilling to work, rude, and of poor hygiene. 

Giuseppe Garibaldi, whose
soldiers stand accused

Italy’s Corte di Cassazione (the equivalent of a Supreme Court) has upheld the decision of a lower court that the term terrone is derogatory and offensive.

Aprile says he grew up not realising what had really happened in the area he was born in during the Risorgimento, because the history was never taught in schools. He had not realised that the people in the South who were labelled as brigands and executed were in fact Bourbon soldiers defending their homeland and that their wives and children were allegedly killed by Giuseppe Garibaldi’s soldiers just because they were considered brigands by association.

He had also never known that the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was one of the most industrialised places in the world, only just behind England and France, before it was invaded by Garibaldi and his men. 

Aprile writes: “The South has been deprived of its institutions; it has been deprived of its industries, its riches and of its ability to react. It has also been deprived of its people, with an emigration that was induced or forced…”

He says that while we think of the North of Italy today as prosperous, and the South as poor, the reverse was the case when Garibaldi set out to unify Italy. And he claims large quantities of money and valuable items were taken from the South to pay off the debts of the North. 

For the reader, references to the war crimes he says were committed during the military campaign to unify Italy are disturbing to say the least. Millions were either killed or wounded and at the very least forced to abandon their homes and land, leading to mass emigration from the south of Italy to the United States and South America.

Terroni sold more
 than 200,000 copies

But Aprile ends Terroni on a hopeful note saying: "I believe that there is no other land in Europe today that has a more promising future, and as many riches to offer than our South."

Aprile is the author of numerous other books, some of which have been translated into English. During his career as a journalist, Aprile was deputy editor of the magazine, Gente, and editor of the magazine, Oggi and he worked for Tg1, the Rai news programme, and TV7.  He also worked with Sergio Zavoli on the investigative series, Journey South.

Although he was born in Gioia del Colle and brought up in the Puglian coastal city of Taranto, Aprile spent many years living and working in Milan. He now lives in the Castelli Romani region of Lazio.

Pino Aprile is celebrating his 75th birthday today.

The well-preserved throne room inside
Gioia del Colle's historic castle

Travel tip:

Gioia del Colle, where Pino Aprile was born, is a comune of Bari in Puglia. It is situated on top of a hill between the Adriatic and Ionian seas. The town’s castle dates from the Byzantine period but it was enlarged by the Normans and Swabians, who successively dominated the area. The main church, initially dedicated to Saint Peter when it was built in the 11th century, but later renamed Madonna della Neve, contains historic frescoes. Gioia del Colle is famous for its production of mozzarella and for its Gioia del Colle Primitivo wine.

Find accommodation in Bari with Expedia

The remains of the Greek
Temple of Poseidon

Travel tip:

The coastal city of Taranto in Puglia, where Pino Aprile grew up, is an important port as well as an Italian naval base. It was founded by the Greeks in the eighth century BC and had become one of the largest cities in the world with a population of about 300,000 by 500 BC. There are several ruined Greek temples, some dating back to the sixth century BC. The old city or Città Vecchia retains the same street layout as when the Byzantines rebuilt it after it had been damaged by the Saracens in 927AD. Taranto has a Big Sea, the natural harbour where the ships are moored, which is separated from its Little Sea, which is actually a lagoon, by a cape. Taranto is famous for its mussels, which are given their distinctive flavour by the special conditions of salinity of the Little Sea. It is also said to be where the Tarantella, a frenetic dance, originated as a response to being bitten by a supposedly venomous spider.

See Hotels.com's selection of Taranto hotels

Also on this day: 

1339: The Battle of Parabiago

1549: The birth of Francesco Maria II della Rovere, last Duke of Urbino

1778: The death of groundbreaking scientist Laura Bassi

1816: Rossini’s Barber of Seville premieres in Rome

1993: The death of car maker Ferruccio Lamborghini

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Michele Novaro - composer

Patriot who wrote music for Italian national anthem

Michele Novaro was an opera
singer as well as a composer

The composer and singer Michele Novaro, who wrote the music that accompanies Goffredo Mameli’s words in Italy’s national anthem, was born on this day in 1818 in Genoa.

While not as actively involved in the Risorgimento movement as Mameli, who took part in various insurrections and died fighting alongside Giuseppe Garibaldi in the battle for a unified, independent Italy, Novaro was a patriot nonetheless.

A committed liberal in his politics, he was a supporter of the cause of independence and composed the music for several patriotic songs in addition to Mameli’s Il canto degli Italiani - The Song of the Italians - which is also known as Fratelli d'Italia (Brothers of Italy) and L’inno di Mameli (Mameli’s hymn).

The oldest of five children, Novaro was born into a theatrical background. His father, Gerolamo, was a stagehand at the Teatro Carlo Felice, the Genoa opera house. His mother, Giuseppina Canzio, was the sister of a well-known painter, scenographer and impresario, Michele Canzio.

Novaro attended singing school and achieved a respectable standard as an opera singer. He was good enough to sing in the Genoese premiere of Gaetano Donizetti's opera Gianni di Calais.

He spent three seasons in Vienna as the second resident tenor at Vienna’s Porta Carinthia theater, returning to Italy to take up a post as second tenor and choirmaster at the Teatro Regio and Teatro Carignano in Turin.

Goffredo Mameli, who was killed
fighting alongside Garibaldi

Novaro willingly gave his services in the cause of independence by writing music to patriotic songs, as well as organising fundraisers in support of Garibaldi. 

He and Mameli, who was also from Genoa, were friends and in 1847 after Mameli had written the words for the song that would earn him immortality it was Novaro he sought out to write a suitable score. 

Novaro is said to have received the text of Mameli’s poem at the Turin home of the patriotic writer, Lorenzo Valerio. He immediately sketched out a first draft of the music, which he then completed on his return to his home, staying up late into the night to perfect it.

The writer Anton Giulio Barrili, another friend of Novaro, later wrote about the birth of Il canto degli Italiani, quoting what Novaro had told him following his first sight of the song at Valerio’s home.

‘I sat at the harpsichord, with Goffredo's verses on the music stand, and I strummed, I murdered that poor instrument with my convulsed fingers, always with my eyes on the hymn, putting down melodic phrases, one on top of the other, but a thousand miles away from the idea that they could adapt to those words. 

‘I got up, dissatisfied with myself; I stayed a little longer at Valerio's house, but always with those verses before my mind's eye. I saw that there was no remedy; I took my leave, and ran home. 

‘There, without even taking off my hat, I threw myself at the piano. The tune I had strummed at Valerio's house came back to my mind: I wrote it down on a sheet of paper, the first that came to hand: in my agitation I turned the lamp over on the harpsichord, and consequently also on the poor sheet of paper: this was the original of the hymn "Fratelli d'Italia".’

Friends paid for a memorial for 
Novaro in Staglieno cemetery

Despite leaving his mark on Italian history, Novaro never achieved fame or fortune.

Such money as he did make, he ploughed into setting up a free choral school in Genoa, to which he devoted his later years.  Struggling with declining health and financial difficulties, he died in October, 1885.

His former students arranged for a funeral monument to be erected to him in his hometown in the Monumental Cemetery of Staglieno, next to the tomb of Giuseppe Mazzini, another major Risorgimento figure who was among his heroes.

Although Il canto degli Italiani was very popular during Italian unification and the following decades, it was not until a century later that it became Italy’s national anthem.

At the time the Kingdom of Italy came into being in 1861, the republican and Jacobin connotations of Fratelli d'Italia were difficult to reconcile with the new state's constitution as a monarchy rather than the republic that Mazzini and his supporters craved. 

The new kingdom instead adopted Marcia Reale (Royal March), the House of Savoy's official anthem, written by Napoleone Giotti and set to music in 1831 by Giuseppe Gabetti. 

Italy finally became a republic after World War Two, following a referendum that rejected the monarchy. On October 12, 1946, it chose Il canto degli Italiani as a provisional national anthem. It retained its de facto status until December 2017, when it was at last recognised as the Italian anthem by law.

The Teatro Carlo Felice in Genoa, where
Novaro's father worked as a stagehand

Travel tip:

The port city of Genoa (Genova), where Michele Novaro was born, is the capiital of the Liguria region. Once a powerful trading centre, the city’s wealth was built on its shipyards and steelworks, but it also boasts many fine buildings, many of which have been restored to their original splendour.  The Doge's Palace, the 16th century Royal Palace and the Romanesque-Renaissance style San Lorenzo Cathedral are just three examples.  The area around the restored harbour area offers a maze of fascinating alleys and squares, enhanced recently by the work of Genoa architect Renzo Piano, and a landmark aquarium, the largest in Italy. At the time of Novara’s birth, the City Architect was Carlo Barabino, a prominent Neoclassicist who designed the Teatro Carlo Felice Opera, the Palazzo dell'Accademia, and the facades of several other buildings. The theatre opened in 1828. 

The Palazzo Reale - Royal Palace - in Turin is
a reminder of the wealth of the Savoy family

Travel tip:

The Savoy dynasty left a significant mark on Turin, shaping its architecture, culture, and overall identity. The Royal Palace served as the opulent official residence of the Savoy kings for centuries. Its lavish interiors, including the Throne Room and the Royal Apartments, offer a glimpse into the grandeur of the dynasty. Housed within the Royal Palace, the Royal Armoury is now a museum boasting an impressive collection of weapons and armour. Also located inside the Royal Palace, the Savoy Gallery houses a remarkable collection of paintings by Italian and European masters, including works by Rubens, Van Dyck, and Canaletto.  Beyond the city, a network of Savoy palaces, villas, and castles is scattered throughout Piemonte. The city’s Duomo - the Cattedrale di San Giovanni Battista - was built between 1491 and 1498 in Piazza San Giovanni. The Chapel of the Holy Shroud, where the Turin Shroud is kept, was added in 1668. Some members of the House of Savoy are buried in the Duomo while others are buried in the Basilica di Superga on the outskirts of the city.

Also on this day: 

1573: The birth of Baroque artist Giovanni Battista Crespi

1896: The birth of writer Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa

1916: The birth of film director Dino Risi

1956: The birth of racing driver Michele Alboreto

1967: The birth of model and singer Carla Bruni

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The Battle of Bezzecca

Garibaldi-led force suffers heavy casualties but wins important victory

A depiction of the Battle of Bezzecca by the
Venetian painter Felice Zennaro

The Battle of Bezzecca, a significant Italian victory in the push for unification, took place on this day in 1866 on a site approximately 10km (6.2 miles) west of the northern tip of Lake Garda in what is now the Trentino region of northern Italy.

The battle was part of the Third Italian War of Independence as the new Kingdom of Italy, which had been formally proclaimed in 1861, sought to expel the Austrians from Venetia, which along with Papal Rome had remained outside the control of the fledgling nation.

It took place within the wider context of the Austro-Prussian War, a conflict that had begun earlier in the year after a territorial dispute. Italy, sensing an opportunity to annex Venetia and the part of Lombardy still under Austrian rule, had agreed an alliance with Prussia.

The Prussian victory at the Battle of Königgrätz resulted in Austria moving troops from Venetia towards Vienna, leaving their territories in northeastern Italy vulnerable to attack. 

Giuseppe Garibaldi, who had famously led the initial push for Italian unification with his Expedition of the Thousand in 1860 and was now a general in the Royal Italian Army, took arms again as the head of another volunteer army known as the Hunters of the Alps, as the Kingdom of Italy sought to capitalise on this supposed Austrian weakness.

The Hunters of the Alps were under
the command of Giuseppe Garibaldi

The Battle of Bezzecca came about a month after hostilities began as Garibaldi’s army, which initially had consisted of about 38,000 men, came up against 15,000 Austrian regulars under the command of General Baron Franz Kuhn von Kuhnenfeld. 

Despite some setbacks, which had included Garibaldi himself being wounded in an assault on an enemy position, the Hunters of the Alps seized control of strategically important towns, opening two potential routes towards the ultimate goal of capturing the city of Trento.

As Garibaldi’s troops moved towards Riva del Garda, from which they intended to push north towards Trento, the Austrians occupied the town of Bezzecca in Val di Ledro, blocking the route.

Garibaldi, overseeing the battle from a coach because of his injuries, directed his artillery to secure a hill near the town to provide support for an infantry assault, which forced the Austrians to withdraw.

It was an Italian victory, albeit one with heavy casualties. Of the 15,500 deployed by Garibaldi, at least 120 were killed or declared missing presumed killed, a further 450 wounded and, before the Austrian withdrawal, more than 1,000 captured. This compared with only about 100 casualties in total on the Austrian side.

In the event, it was the last battle Garibaldi would need to fight before the Italian objective of bringing Venetia into the new kingdom was achieved.

General Alfonso La Marmora, who 
ordered Garibaldi to withdraw

As he prepared to continue the invasion toward Garda, he received orders from General Alfonso La Marmora, commander-in-chief of the Italian army, to abandon Trentino ahead of an impending armistice between Italy and Austria following the cessation of hostilities between Austria and Prussia. 

From the main square of Bezzecca, Giuseppe Garibaldi famously replied with a telegram consisting of just one word: “Obbedisco!" - "I obey!” 

Under the terms of the Treaty of Vienna, which was signed on October 3, 1866, the Iron Crown of Lombardy, which had been in Austria’s possession since the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1815, was returned to the Italian monarchy, while Venetia, consisting of modern Veneto, parts of Friuli and the city of Mantua, was ceded to Italy. 

The annexation of Venetia and Mantua was subject to a plebiscite, allowing the population to express its will. The result was overwhelmingly in favour, with 99.9 percent of participants saying yes to becoming part of the Kingdom of Italy.

The Chiesa di Santi Stefano e Lorenzo houses
a memorial to victims of the Battle of Bezzecca

Travel tip:

The Bezzecca of today, about 35km (22 miles) southwest of Trento, is a popular holiday destination in unspoilt surroundings, a short distance from Lago di Ledro, one of the most beautiful of the Trentino lakes. It is popular with walkers and cyclists, with many paths and trails to follow through the surrounding countryside. Since 2010, along with Pieve di Ledro, Concei, Molina di Ledro, Tiarno di Sopra and Tiarno di Sotto, it has been part of the new municipality of Ledro. The Battle of Bezzecca is recalled in many street names and buildings, while there is a small museum dedicated to Garibaldi and the Great War. Museum. In Piazza Garibaldi, the Chiesa di Santi Stefano e Lorenzo houses the Bezzecca War Memorial, which commemorates those who died fighting with Garibaldi and local men killed during the Great War. Outside the church, there is a 75 mm Italian cannon and a column donated to Bezzecca by the city of Rome in 1924.

Trento's Piazza Duomo, with the Palazzo Pretorio
on the left and the Cattedrale di San Vigilio

Travel tip:

The prosperous modern city of Trento is considered one of the most desirable places to live in Italy for quality of life and employment opportunities. With a population of 117,000, it is situated in an Alpine valley on the Adige river between the northern tip of Lake Garda and the border city of Bolzano, about 95km (59 miles) north of Verona. Settled by the Romans in the first century, it changed hands many times before becoming a major city in the Holy Roman Empire. The Austrians took charge in the 14th century and it remained under their control, with the exception of a spell of French domination in the Napoleonic era until the First World War.  It was notable in the 16th century for hosting the Council of Trent, the ecumenical council of the Catholic Church that gave rise to the resurgence of the church following Protestant Reformation. The 13th century Castello del Buonconsiglio, next to Trento’s city walls, was a military barracks under the Austrians, then a jail, before falling into disrepair.  It was restored after Trento became part of Italy in the 1920s and now houses a museum and art gallery.

Also on this day: 

1871: The birth of writer and historian Guglielmo Ferrero

1914: The birth of screenwriter Suso Cecchi D’Amico

1948: The birth of comedian-turned-activist Beppe Grillo

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