Battle of Campaldino

Victory of Guelphs over Ghibellines established Florentine dominance

The Battle of Campaldino resulted in the deaths
of an estimated 1,700 Ghibelline soldiers

The Battle of Campaldino, which is seen as an important turning point in medieval Italian history, took place on this day in 1289 on the Plain of Campaldino, part of the Casentino valley in eastern Tuscany.

Fought between the Guelphs of Florence, approximately 50km (30 miles) to the west, and the Ghibellines of Arezzo, about 35km (21 miles) to the south, it ended in a victory for the former, crushing the aspirations of the Ghibellines to become the dominant force in the region.

It was a milestone moment that solidified Florence as the major economic and military superpower in central Italy, paving the political and financial path that would ultimately create the wealth that underpinned the Italian Renaissance.

The battle for power between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, which was immortalised by the poet Dante Alighieri - himself a combatant on the Guelph side at Campaldino - in his Divine Comedy, spanned around 300 years of Italian history, between the early 12th and the late 14th centuries.

The two factions were characterised by one side’s support for the papacy (the Guelphs) and the other’s allegiance to the Holy Roman Emperor (the Ghibellines) and while their bitter and prolonged struggle was for supremacy in northern Italy, the conflict had its roots in Germany.

It originated in the battle for imperial control between the House of Welf and the House of Hohenstaufen and spilled into Italy when the Hohenstaufen emperors - notably Frederick I (Barbarossa) and his grandson Frederick II - marched armies into northern Italy to re-assert their legal authority over cities such as Milan, Florence, and Bologna, which were still part of the Empire even though they had developed independent wealth.

The Guelphs and Ghibellines fought for supremacy in the
north of Italy for almost three centuries

This invasion caused division among the local populations and effectively forced people to take sides, with those who welcomed the order imposed by imperial rule siding with the Hohenstaufens, and those who resisted declaring their support for the House of Welf.

The names are said to derive from the battle cries of the rival houses - ‘Hie Welf!’ in the case of the House of Welf, and ‘Hie Waiblingen!’, which was  a major Hohenstaufen castle. On Italian lips, these evolved into Guelph and Ghibelline.

The split along the lines of pro-Popes and pro-Empire took hold because the papacy, which ruled a large swath of central Italy known as the Papal States, viewed the Holy Roman Empire as an existential threat to church independence and gave their support to the House of Welf.

Once the Pope versus Emperor narrative had become established in Italy, rival Italian city-states began to use these German faction labels to further their own aims.

If a powerful city-state declared itself Ghibelline, for instance, its bitterest regional neighbour would immediately declare itself Guelph to secure papal backing. Thus Florence declared itself Guelph in opposition to Ghibelline Siena and Ghibelline Arezzo, while Guelph Milan squared up to Ghibelline Cremona.

The names stuck long after the original struggle between the Welfs and the Hohenstaufens in Germany had been resolved.

The poet Dante Alighieri fought
in the Battle of Campaldino

The Battle of Campaldino came about at a time when Tuscany was deeply divided with Guelph Florence and Ghibelline Arezzo both intent on becoming the dominant city-state in the region.

The area was suffering from grain shortages and when Florence began to expand its economic and territorial reach up the Arno River to feed its growing population, it directly threatened the security, trade routes and influence of Arezzo. 

Tensions began to flare when Arezzo expelled all Guelph supporters from the city in 1287, sparking both sides to launch a series of raids on each other. The catalyst for wider conflict came as the Florentine Guelphs threatened the towns of Bibbiena and Civitella, prompting Arezzo to mobilise its forces.

Florence had assembled a Guelph coalition of soldiers from Pistoia, Lucca, Siena and Prato in addition to their own men, under the command of the professional condottiero, Amerigo di Narbona, and Guillaume de Durfort, his French military adviser. 

The Aretine army was led by bishop Guglielmino degli Ubertini and Bonconte da Montefeltro, the son of Guido I da Montefeltro.

The Guelph army not only numbered more combatants - 12,000 against 10,800 - they were better trained. The battle, which took place on the part of the Campaldino plain between Pratovecchio and Poppi, raged for several hours before a major storm struck, by which point the Ghibellines had seen 1,700 men killed and another 2,000 captured, against just 300 losses for the Guelph side. 

Soon afterwards, the Florentine Guelphs began fighting among themselves for power in the city, splitting into factions called the White Guelphs and the Black Guephs. 

Dante, who had fought at Campaldino as a 24-year-old cavalry scout, was a White Guelph. In common with the rest of his faction, when the Black Guelphs eventually seized power, he was sent into permanent exile in 1302.

It was not long afterwards that he began writing his masterwork, the Divine Comedy, which portrays the poet’s vision of the afterlife divided into three sections: Inferno, Purgatory and Paradise.

The gruesome sights he had encountered on the battlefield directly inspired vivid characters and scenes in the Divine Comedy, including a meeting in Purgatory with Bonconte da Montefeltro, one of the Ghibelline leaders, who was slain at Campaldino and whose body was never found. 

The Pieve di San Pietro a Romena is seen as
a masterpiece of Romanesque architecture

Travel tip:

Pratovecchio Stia is a small town in the upper Casentino valley in Tuscany, formed in 2014 by merging the historic villages of Pratovecchio and Stia. It sits in a landscape of forests, Romanesque churches and medieval castles, near the source of the Arno river, surrounded by the Casentino Forest National Park, one of Italy’s most atmospheric woodland landscapes. The town itself retains a medieval street plan with many artisan workshops, especially those making products using the densely woven Casentino wool cloth. Things to see include the Romena Castle, once one of the most powerful Guidi fortresses, mentioned by Dante in Inferno. The keep, three towers and stretches of defensive walls survive, along with the drawbridge and the Podestà’s house.  Dante spent some time living in the castle during his exile from Florence. The Pieve di San Pietro a Romena, one of the most beautiful parish churches in Casentino, is a masterpiece of 12th‑century Romanesque architecture with sculpted capitals and a separate baptistery. Pratovecchio is the birthplace of Paolo Uccello, one of the great early Renaissance painters, celebrated for his pioneering use of perspective. 

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Travel tip:

The Castello dei Conti Guidi at Poppi, which has
echoes of the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence

Poppi is one of the Casentino valley’s most atmospheric hill towns, crowned by the Castello dei Conti Guidi, a 13th‑century fortress attributed to Arnolfo di Cambio, the architect of Florence’s Palazzo Vecchio, of which it has echoes. Its soaring tower, frescoed chapel, and magnificent wooden library make it the cultural heart of the valley. Below the castle, Poppi’s medieval street plan unfolds in quiet stone lanes, Romanesque churches, and elegant loggias.  The Badia di San Fedele, with its terracotta works by the Della Robbia school, anchors the historic centre, while panoramic terraces offer sweeping views across forests, vineyards, and the winding Arno. Poppi also serves as a gateway to the Casentino Forest National Park, one of Italy’s most pristine woodland reserves.  Poppi’s cuisine is rustic and generous, including tortelli di patate, grilled meats, porcini mushrooms and the celebrated Casentino prosciutto. The town is renowned for its festivals, from medieval re-enactments to food fairs celebrating chestnuts and mountain produce. It is included in the Borghi più belli d'Italia - Italy’s most beautiful small towns. Poppi’s Palazzo Crudeli is the birthplace of Tommaso Crudeli, who was condemned by the Catholic Church as heretic. He belonged to the first Freemason Lodge of Italy established by the English colony in Florence, 1732.

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More reading:

How Castruccio Castracani masterminded a Ghibelline victory at the Battle of Montecatini

Dante Alighieri - the great Florentine writer whose body remains in exile

Beatrice Portinari – Dante’s inspiration

Also on this day:

1655: The birth of painter Antonio Cifrondi

1690: The birth of composer Giovanni Antonio Giay

1956: The death of writer and journalist Corrado Alvaro

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Lateran Treaty comes into effect

When the Vatican became an independent state

A map of the territory of the Vatican City, as 
defined by the Lateran Treaty of 1929

Benito Mussolini was helped to gain more power and any public opinion against him was effectively neutralised by the Lateran Treaty when it came into effect in Italy on this day in 1929.

The Catholic Church had effectively given legitimacy to fascism when the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See had signed the treaty earlier in the year, recognising the Vatican as an independent state within Italy. The Church was perceived as openly inviting Catholics to support the Fascist regime.

When the Treaty was ratified by the Italian Parliament on June 7, 1929, it finally settled what had been known as ‘The Roman Question’, a dispute regarding the power of the popes as rulers of civil territory within a united Italy. 

Although Italy was then under a Fascist government, the Lateran Treaty was incorporated into the new, democratic Italian constitution in 1947 and all the succeeding democratic Italian governments have upheld the treaty since.

Mussolini had agreed to give the church financial support in return for public support from the Pope, Pius XI. He paid the Vatican 1.75 billion lira to compensate for the seizures of church property since 1860. 

Pius XI invested the money in the stock markets and real estate. To manage these investments, he appointed Bernardino Nogara, who, through shrewd investing in stocks, gold, and futures markets, significantly increased the Catholic Church's financial holdings. 

The income largely paid for the upkeep of the expensive-to-maintain stock of historic buildings in the Vatican, which until 1870 had been maintained through funds raised from the Papal States.

The signing of the Treaty in the Lateran Palace, by
Cardinal Pietro Gasparri (left) and Benito Mussolini

 As part of the treaty, the youth organisation Catholic Action granted the unique status of being the only non-Fascist organisation in Italy that was not banned. It was allowed to continue by Mussolini, but its role was restricted to religious and educational activity. Later, Mussolini tried to absorb Catholic Action into his Fascist youth groups.

From this day in 1929, the Vatican was officially an independent state occupying 40 hectares (100 acres) of land within Italy, with the Pope as an independent sovereign ruling within Vatican City. 

The papacy had recognised the state of Italy, with Rome as its capital, giving the city a special character as ‘the centre of the Catholic world and a place of pilgrimage.’

During the Risorgimento, the struggle to unite Italy in the 19th century, the Papal States had resisted being incorporated into the new nation. Italian troops had invaded the Romagna, then part of the Papal States, in 1860, and the rest of the territory, including Rome, was occupied by the army in 1870. 

After the ratification of the Lateran Treaty, the Papacy formally relinquished any claim over its former territories. 

Via della Conciliazione, the wide boulevard built
after the Lateran Treaty was ratified

The treaty is named after the Lateran Palace where the agreement was signed by King Victor Emanuel III and Pope Pius XI.

The Lateran Palace was the main papal residence in Rome between the fourth and 14th centuries. It is in Piazza San Giovanni in Laterano, next to the Basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano, the first Christian basilica in Rome and now the Cathedral Church of the city. Some distance away from the Vatican, the palace is now an extraterritorial property of the Holy See, with similar rights to a foreign embassy.

Via della Conciliazione, the wide avenue along which visitors approach Saint Peter’s Basilica from Castel Sant’Angelo, was built on the orders of Mussolini as a symbol of reconciliation between the Holy See and the Italian state after the Lateran Treaty was ratified. 

Roughly 500 metres long, the vast colonnaded street designed by Marcello Piacentino was intended to link the Vatican to the heart of Rome. At the time it had the opposite effect symbolically, as many buildings were demolished and residents had to be displaced.

The Papal Palace sits at the top of the main street in
pretty Castel Gandolfo, which overlooks Lake Albano

Travel tip:

Under the 1929 Lateran Treaty, the Papal Palace and surrounding villas of Castel Gandolfo became the extraterritorial property of the Holy See. The site resumed its historical role as the papal summer residence, underwent major expansions, and hosted thousands of refugees during World War II. Castel Gandolfo, where the Pope still has his summer residence, overlooks Lake Albano from its wonderful position in the hills south of Rome. The Pope spends every summer in the Apostolic Palace. Although his villa lies within the town’s boundaries, it is one of the properties of the Holy See. The palace is not under Italian jurisdiction and is policed by the Swiss Guard. The whole area is part of the regional park of Castelli Romani, which has many places of historic and artistic interest to visit.

Castel Sant'Angelo, on the banks of the Tiber, was
used by the popes as a fortress, castle and prison

Travel tip:

Castel Sant’Angelo, the towering cylindrical building in Parco Adriano, on the banks of the Tiber, was originally commissioned by the Roman emperor Hadrian as a mausoleum for himself and his family. There is a legend that the Archangel Michael appeared on top of the mausoleum, sheathing his sword as a sign of the end of the plague of 590, which is how the castle acquired its present name. It was later used by the popes as a fortress, castle and prison, and is now a museum. It was once the tallest building in Rome.  Hadrian also built the Pons Aelius – now Ponte Sant’Angelo – which provided a scenic approach to the mausoleum from the centre of Rome across the Tiber. Baroque statues of angels were later added, lining each side of the bridge. Pope Nicolas III commissioned a covered fortified corridor, the Passetto, to link the castle to the Vatican and Pope Clement VII was able to use it to escape from the Vatican during the siege of Rome by Charles V’s troops in 1527. The elevated passage, mounted on a wall, is approximately 800m (2,600 ft) long and still exists today, running alongside the Borgo Sant’Angelo and Via dei Corridori, the streets that are parallel with Via della Conciliazione.  

More reading:

The February signing of the Lateran Treaty 

Bernardino Nogara, the former engineer appointed to build papal wealth

The archbishop who tried to arrange a truce between Mussolini and the partisans

Also on this day:

1422: The birth of condottiero Federico da Montefeltro 

1687: The birth of castrato singer Gaetano Berenstadt

1936: The birth of TV presenter Pippo Baudo

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The Siege of Mantua

Eight-month blockade gave Napoleon control of northern Italy

French painter Hippolyte Lecomte's depiction of 
Austria's surrender to the French at the end of the siege

Troops led by one of Napoleon Bonaparte’s top generals laid siege to the city of Mantua on this day in 1796 in what would unfold as the defining hub of the French military leader’s victorious First Italian Campaign.

Following two months of lightning aggressive actions by Napoleon’s forces,  Austria’s allies in Piedmont were forced to surrender, the Austrians themselves were driven out of Milan and then fled into the mountains of Tyrol to the north.

But a garrison of 14,000 Austrian soldiers remained in Mantua, a fortress city largely surrounded by water that was key to control of northern Italy.

The Austrian retreat meant Mantua was isolated, at which point French divisions under General Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier moved to force Austrian outposts to withdraw into the city, which on June 4 was completely surrounded. 

The Mantua garrison had been Austria’s insurance against invasion by Napoleon from Italy, meaning any attempt to do so was a risk he could not take. But isolating it proved to be an act of strategic genius on his part. 

It led the Austrians to make repeated attempts to relieve their stranded garrison, each one leaving them weaker.

The first, led by forces under the command of Count Dagobert von Wurmser, was crushed by Napoleon’s army in defeats at the Battles of Lonato and Castiglione, south of Lake Garda.

The second, again led by Wurmser, suffered another defeat at the Battle of Bassano, after which the Austrian field marshal decided against retreating towards his own territory in favour of continuing towards Mantua, almost 120km (72 miles) south. 

Napoleon at the Battle of Arcole by
French artist Antoine-Jean Gros

Napoleon’s forces chased them all the way, eventually forcing them inside the city. It swelled the garrison to almost 30,000, but the siege remained in place and there was not enough food to go round. Meanwhile, malaria - spread by mosquitoes from the surrounding lake and swamps - was rife. Within six weeks, some 4,000 Austrians had died, either from untreated wounds, disease or malnutrition.

After that, it was the turn of another Austrian commander, Baron Jozsef Alvinczi, to attempt to break the siege and re-establish Austrian control. 

Against an army of 24,000, Napoleon’s outnumbered army was stretched. It suffered heavy losses but somehow managed to win a long, attritional fight at the Battle of Arcole, southeast of Verona, before his brilliant tactics routed Alvinczi’s forces at the Battle of Rivoli, 50km (30 miles) to the northwest.

With Alvinczi's army destroyed, no hope of rescue left, and the Mantua garrison devastated by disease, in February, 1797, Wurmser finally capitulated. The French captured over 13,000 prisoners and 500 artillery pieces.

With no major Austrian army left in Italy, Napoleon could now march towards Vienna. Austria, exhausted and isolated, sued for peace, leading to the Treaty of Campo Formio, which controversially saw Napoleon hand control of Venice to Austria, spelling the end of the Venetian Republic after 1,100 years.

Thus, Austrian rule in northern Italy was ended, at least temporarily. They would regain it less than 20 years later.

Mantua's Basilica of Sant'Andrea, 
which was built in the 15th century

Travel tip: 

Mantua is an atmospheric city in Lombardy, about 150km (90 miles) to the southeast of Milan. In the 6th century BC it was an Etruscan village, its name deriving from the Etruscan god Mantus. It was in turn ruled by Romans - the poet, Virgil, was born near the city in 70BC - Byzantines, Longobards and Franks, before passing through the hands of the Canossa, Bonacolsi and Gonzaga families. The Renaissance Palazzo Ducale was the seat of the Gonzaga family between 1328 and 1707. The Camera degli Sposi is decorated with frescoes by Andrea Mantegna, depicting the life of Ludovico III Gonzaga and his family, who ruled Mantua for 34 years in the 15th century. The nearby 15th century Basilica of Sant’Andrea was originally built to accommodate the large number of pilgrims who came to Mantua to see a precious relic, an ampoule containing what were believed to be drops of Christ’s blood mixed with earth. The basilica, in Piazza Mantegna, houses the tomb of Andrea Mantegna, who was buried in the first chapel on the left, which contains a picture of the Holy Family and John the Baptist that had been painted by him. Elsewhere, the Palazzo Te is a fine example of the Mannerist school of architecture, the masterpiece of the architect Giulio Romano. The name for the palace came about because the location chosen had been the site of the Gonzaga family stables at Isola del Te on the edge of the marshes just outside Mantua’s city walls.

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One of Bassano del Grappa's main squares is
the Piazza Libertà, pictured here at night 

Travel tip:

Bassano del Grappa is an historic town at the foot of Monte Grappa in the Vicenza province of the Veneto, famous for inventing grappa, a spirit made from the grape skins and stalks left over from wine production, which is popular with Italians as an after dinner drink to aid digestion. The town’s main attraction is the Ponte degli Alpini, also known as the Ponte Vecchio, a bridge across the Brenta river designed in 1569 by Andrea Palladio. It has been rebuilt several times after being damaged or destroyed by wars but always to the original design. The wooden bridge was the site of farewells for Alpini soldiers heading to the front in World War One, and Bassano still honours the thousands who never returned. Next to the bridge is the Grapperia Nardini, founded in 1779 and said to be Italy’s oldest distillery. Visitors can taste classic grappa, the local liqueur Tagliatella, and the signature cocktail Mezzo e Mezzo. The two main squares, which link to one another, are the Piazza Libertà and Piazza Garibaldi. Bassano developed as a medieval trading centre, later flourishing under Venetian rule, which shaped its architecture and craft traditions.

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More reading:

Napoleon’s victory at the Battle of Rivoli

Napoleon crowns himself King of Italy

The execution of Joachim Murat, key aide of Napoleon

Also on this day:

1463: The death of historian Flavio Biondo

1604: The birth of Claudia de’ Medici, Archduchess of Tyrol

1895: The birth of Fascist politician Dino Grandi

1966: The birth of soprano Cecilia Bartoli

1970: The birth of Olympic skiing champion Deborah Compagnoni

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Ancona comes under attack as Italy enters World War I

The day the capital of Le Marche was bombarded from the sea

A painting, by an unknown artist, depicting battleships
of the Austria-Hungary fleet bombarding Ancona

The port city of Ancona on the Adriatic Sea became an immediate target for naval ships deployed by Austria-Hungary on this day in 1915 after Italy entered World War I.

The Austrian fleet were quick to react after Italy declared that it was joining the war on the side of the Allies, having initially remained neutral. 

Destroyers immediately set sail from their base in Pola - modern-day Pula in Croatia - heading towards Ancona to attack both military and civilian targets under the cover of darkness.

The rest of the Austrian fleet set off to join in the bombardment the following day and the enemy ships attacked several other coastal cities in the province of Ancona, destroying a train and a railway station while they were firing on Senigallia. 

Two destroyers and a torpedo boat bombarded Ancona’s harbour for about an hour and 15 minutes, and an Italian destroyer, which was trying to defend the city, was badly damaged. 

There were two enemy aircraft in the sky above Ancona signalling the targets that had been chosen to be hit by the ships. The city’s military hospital, penal colony, orphanage, the Bank of Italy building, and some shipyard workshops in Ancona were all selected and many ended up badly damaged as a result.

The primary objective of Austria-Hungary was to hinder Italian mobilisation by attacking the key naval, industrial, and logistical infrastructure along the Adriatic coast.

Ancona's cathedral sits on top of a hill above the
harbour, making it an obvious target

The Austria-Hungary navy managed to inflict heavy damage on the whole area and 63 people, including some civilians, were killed in Ancona alone. 

The dome and a chapel inside Ancona’s cathedral - the Cattedrale di San Ciriaco - were seriously damaged by eight Austrian cannon shots.

This major onslaught on the Adriatic coast culminated in a bombing raid on Venice by Austrian seaplanes.

It was the largest and most ambitious naval operation carried out by the Austro-Hungarian navy during World War I. But eventually, a large Allied blockade was set up to prevent the enemy fleet from leaving the Adriatic.  

There had been widespread public support after King Victor Emmanuel III had formally declared war, siding with the Allies, at 15.00 on 23 May. Many Italians were hoping it would give them the chance to regain lost territory, such as areas of present-day Trentino alto Adige and the South Tyrol, as well as parts of Istria and the Dalmatian coast. 

However, Italy had been unprepared for immediate offensive operations, particularly along the Adriatic coast where fortifications were inadequate. 

The Allies were able to subsequently blockade the Strait of Otranto between Brindisi in Italy and Corfu in Greece to prevent the Austro-Hungarian navy from escaping into the Mediterranean and threatening any more of their operations.

Although the attackers did not suffer many casualties themselves, after this raid on Ancona, the major Austro-Hungarian battleships rarely left their bases.

The previous year, when General Luigi Cadorna had been preparing for war, his attention had been focused on Italy’s western border with France. For many people, trench warfare remains a lasting image of World War I, which makes them think of the conflict as principally a land war.

But the sea and air operations that were also carried out during World War I foreshadowed the important part the sea and air were to play during World War II, just 25 years later.

Pope Clement XIII's statue looks over
Ancona's pretty Piazza del Plebiscito

Travel tip:

Ancona is a city and a seaport in the Marche region of central Italy and is the capital of both the province and the region. The city is 280km (170 miles) northeast of Rome and is one of the main ports on the Adriatic Sea for passenger traffic. Ferries link Ancona with ports in Greece, Turkey and Croatia. The name Ancona derives from the shape of the harbour that the Greek founders of the city referred to as ‘ankon’, meaning elbow. Thanks to this unusual configuration, Ancona is the only city in Italy, and one of the few in the world, where it is possible to see the sun both rise and set over the sea. A famous site near the harbour is the towering Trajan’s Arch, built in AD115 overlooking the port in honour of the Roman Emperor, Trajan. Near to it is the smaller Clementine’s Arch, built by architect Luigi Vanvitelli in 1733 on the orders of Pope Clement XII, who wanted to be remembered for the work he had commissioned to modernise the port in order to revive the city’s maritime trade. A large statue of Clement XII also stands in front of the 13th century Church of San Domenico in Piazza del Plebiscito, which is a lively square, just off the seafront, with plenty of bars and restaurants.

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The cathedral's Gothic porch,
flanked by red marble lions

Travel tip:

High above Ancona on Monte Guasco stands the Cattedrale di San Ciriaco in Piazza del Duomo, which was damaged during the bombardment by Austria-Hungary. It is a short bus ride from the centre of Ancona. The cathedral was founded during the fourth century but was later rebuilt and consecrated in 1017. It has a Gothic porch flanked by red marble lions that was added in about 1200. The body of Ancona’s patron saint, San Ciriaco (Saint Cyriacus) is kept in the crypt, but it is no longer on public view.  There, you can also see the remains of the original Greek temple that stood on the site, and some early frescoes. The grounds surrounding Ancona’s Duomo have panoramic views of the harbour below and provide a good opportunity for taking photographs on a clear day. On the road just below the Duomo can be found a site with the remains of a Roman amphitheatre, which was  built towards the end of the first century BC, and nearby is a lift that will carry you down to the Lungomare Luigi Vanvitelli, a road that overlooks the port and leads into the centre of the city.

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More reading:

The World War I flying ace who became physician to Italy’s Chamber of Deputies

The army commander who was one of first to see the potential of air power

The general who masterminded Italy's decisive World War 1 victory

Also on this day:

1498: The execution of hellfire preacher Girolamo Savonarola

1670: The death of Ferdinando II de’ Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany

1729: The birth of poet and satirist Giuseppe Parini

1933: The birth of football referee Sergio Gonella 

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Execution of four Carbonari in Ravenna

The day the city was draped in black

Tancredi Scarpelli's depiction of the 
scene following the executions

Four members of the secret society known as I Carbonari (the charcoal burners) were executed by hanging in a public square in Ravenna on this day in 1828.

The executions, thought to have taken place in one of the main squares in the centre of the city, possibly Piazza del Popolo, were carried out by the notorious papal executioner, Giovanni Battista Bugatti, who was nicknamed Mastro Titta, a slang version of maestro di giustizia, master of justice.

The four victims were found guilty of plotting to kidnap and assassinate Cardinal Agostino Rivarola, who had been sent to Ravenna to defend papal authority and clamp down on revolutionaries. 

Bugatti was the official executioner for the Papal States from 1796 to 1865. While working for six different popes, he executed 516 people by either beating, beheading or hanging them.

On this occasion in Ravenna, acting on behalf of the Papal Legate, he conducted the executions of Luigi Zanoli, Ortolani Angiolo, Gaetano Montanari, and Gaetano Rambelli.

The four unfortunate men were all believed to be members of the anticlerical Carbonari society.

The Vatican’s enforcer in the Romagna, Cardinal Rivarola, had issued mass condemnations against I Carbonari, and as a result, in 1826, shots had been fired at his carriage and a member of his entourage had died, although Rivarola had escaped unhurt.

Following an investigation into the incident ordered by Pope Leo XII, the death penalty had been dealt out to the four people accused of carrying out the shooting.

On the day of the execution, the square where it took place was completely occupied by the military to prevent anyone from getting near the gallows.

All shops, and the windows and doors of houses were closed, and many of them were draped in black. The streets were completely empty, reflecting the mood of the population, as the wagon containing the prisoners made its way through the deserted city surrounded by soldiers.

Agostino Rivarola, the cardinal who
survived an attempted assassination

The prisoners all refused the offer of confessing to two friars who were present at the gallows before they were put to death. As they mounted the steps to the gallows the four men shouted: ‘Viva Italia! Down with the papacy,’ before they were hanged.

The Carbonari was an informal network of secret revolutionary societies active in Italy from about 1800 to 1831. They were a focus for people who were unhappy with the repressive political situation in Italy. The secret societies played their part in the process leading to the Risorgimento and eventually to Italian unification.

They adopted the name 'Carbonari' because they used the charcoal-burning trade in the forested, mountainous regions of the Apennines, where the group originated, as cover for their clandestine meetings.

The English poet Lord Byron lived for two of the six years he spent in Italy in Ravenna, to be near Teresa Guiccioli, the young, beautiful wife of Count Alessandro Guiccioli, who he had been introduced to at a social gathering in Venice. During his time in Ravenna, he enjoyed the excitement of being part of I Carbonari, after being introduced to the society by Teresa’s father, Ruggiero Gamba, and her brother, Pietro Gamba.

Byron relished the secret meetings in pine forests outside Ravenna and even allowed members of the group to hide weapons and ammunition in his apartment. If Byron had been found to be housing the weapons, he would have been arrested and almost certainly imprisoned, or expelled from Austrian-controlled territory, but his fellow Carbonari believed he was less likely to be condemned to death because he was an English Lord.

The poet believed in the cause of fighting for a free Italy, but he left Ravenna to follow Teresa and her father and brother, after they had been exiled  to Florence, without ever having the chance to take part in a revolt against the Austrians. 

Giovanni Battista Bugatti had become the official executioner of the Papal States at the age of 17 and served the popes Pius VI, Pius VII, Leo XII, Pius VIII, Gregory XVI and Pius IX. Charles Dickens wrote about Bugatti in Pictures of Italy, after watching one of his executions in 1845. 

When Bugatti retired from his work, he was given a residence and a pension by the Pope and he wrote his memoirs. He died in 1869 in Senigallia in Le Marche, the town where he had been born. A book claiming to be his memoirs was published in 1891. The memoirs devoted an entire chapter to the execution of Leonida Montanari in Ravenna in 1825, who was the brother of Gaetano Montanari, one of the four men executed in Ravenna on 13 May 1828.

The Basilica di Sant Vitale is
famous for its stunning mosaics

Travel tip:

Ravenna in Emilia-Romagna, was the capital city of the western Roman empire in the fifth century. It is known for its well-preserved late Roman and Byzantine architecture and has eight UNESCO world heritage sites. The Basilica of San Vitale is one of the most important examples of early Christian Byzantine art and architecture in Europe. Ravenna also houses the tomb of the poet Dante Alighieri, who lived and died there after he was exiled from Florence. Byron was said to have found the tomb of the poet inspirational and would sit writing his poetry close to it while he was living in the city. Florence has repeatedly asked for Dante’s remains to be sent back to them, but Ravenna has always refused to relinquish them.  Ravenna’s cuisine reflects Romagna’s rustic traditions. Signature dishes include piadina, the region’s soft flatbread, cappelletti in broth or ragù, and passatelli, made from breadcrumbs, cheese, and nutmeg. Local grills feature castrato (mutton), which is highly prized in the region for its bright red colour, white fat, and intense flavour.  Mussels from Marina di Ravenna feature on menus as well. 

Piazza del Popolo was the site of
Ravenna's public executions

Travel tip:

Piazza del Popolo, where public executions took place, is at the heart of the city of Ravenna and for more than 700 years has been home to the palaces of power, such as the town hall and the prefecture building, which was once home to the Papal Legation. Now a lively square with open-air cafés and bars, it is the convergence point of many streets. It has a Venetian feel because Venice added twin columns similar to the pair in Piazzetta San Marco during the period they ruled over Ravenna. The Venetian authorities governed the city from the Palazzetta Veneziana between 1441 and 1509.  The origin of the square dates back to the late 13th century, when the Da Polenta family became masters of the city. The palatial residence of Bernardino da Polenta became the political hub of the city and remained so until it was demolished in 1681, when it was replaced by the current Town Hall.

More reading:

How Lord Byron became a Ravenna revolutionary

Gabriele Rossetti, the poet and academic who became a key Carbonari figure

The strange life of Mastro Titta, souvenir seller and executioner

Also on this day:

1726: The death of composer and singer Francesco Pistocchi

1804: The birth of Venetian patriot Daniele Manin

1909: The first Giro d’Italia

1935: The birth of entrepreneur Luciano Benetton

1938: The birth of politician Giuliano Amato

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Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici - banker

Medici dynasty was built on his fortune

Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici; this portrait by
Alessandro Allori hangs in the Uffizi in Florence

Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici, who created the wealth upon which the Medici dynasty of Renaissance Italy was built, died on this day in 1429 in Florence.

Although Cosimo de’ Medici, his son, is regarded as the founder of the dynasty as the first Medici to rule Florence, it was the fortune that Cosimo inherited from his father that enabled him to command power and influence in the city. The Medici family would rule Florence, barring a few interruptions, for the next 300 years.

Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici founded the Medici Bank in 1397 and at the time of his death was one of the wealthiest men in Europe. Although he had another son who survived to be an adult, Lorenzo, the bulk of his fortune passed to Cosimo.

Born in Florence, it is thought in 1360, he was the son of Averardo de’ Medici and Jacopa Spini. Bicci was Averardo’s nickname.

Averardo, a wool merchant, died comfortably off, but not wealthy. His estate was divided between his five sons and Giovanni’s share was relatively small, compelling him to build his fortune through skill and opportunity rather than inheritance. 

Giovanni's uncle, Vieri, on the other hand, was rich. From another branch of the Medici family, he owned one of the 70-plus banks thought to have existed in Florence in the second half of the 14th century and was good at his business, much of which involved loans and investments.

Vieri took the young De’ Medici on and supervised his rise through the ranks, being sufficiently impressed with the speed at which he learned that he made him a junior partner of the bank’s branch in Rome. In 1385, thanks to a dowry of 1500 florins that his wife, a noblewoman called Piccarda Bueri, brought to their marriage, he was able to take control of the Rome branch. The branch grew and when Vieri retired, in 1393, he decided to place De’ Medici in charge of the entire business.

In 1397, De’ Medici moved from Rome to Florence and opened the Medici Bank, establishing a headquarters at the crossroads between Via Porta Rossa and Via Calimala in an area of the city called Orsanmichele, a short distance from Piazza della Signoria.

Giovanni's son, Cosimo, built the
Medici powerbase on the bank's success

Giovanni De’ Medici was a shrewd businessman and the Medici Bank prospered in part thanks to his careful investment in the cloth trade. By the early 15th century, it had already become one of the most respected financial institutions in Europe, with branches in Venice, Rome and Naples as well as Florence. 

Under his leadership, the structure of the bank was revised in a way that meant that it functioned as a collection of partnerships, rather than having a central structure. This meant that if one branch suffered a loss, the impact on the bank as a whole would be less. In this way, the Medici Bank enjoyed financial resilience that other institutions lacked.

Giovanni was not an overtly political operator but had a knack for forming advantageous friendships, the most successful of all being the relationship he forged with the Catholic Church during his time in Rome. 

His decision to align himself with Baldassarre Cossa, a cardinal who would become the Antipope John XXIII during the Western Schism. In return for support from the Medici Bank, Cossa appointed them as managers of the papal treasury, a lucrative privilege that earned the bank a substantial amount in commissions.

Although Cossa was deposed after five years, Giovanni had by then foreseen the return of the papacy to Rome and found favour with Oddone Colonna, who as Pope Martin V maintained the Medici as papal bankers.

At the same time, he honoured Baldassare Cossa’s trust in him by paying a 38,000 ducat ransom to secure his release from prison in Germany. When Cossa died in 1419, Giovanni sponsored the construction of a magnificent tomb for him in the Florence Baptistery.

The Old Sacristy, a Brunelleschi masterpiece,
where Giovanni de' Medici is buried

Subsequent popes also retained the services of the Medici banks, setting the family on the path to becoming one of the richest dynasties in Europe. 

Through all this, Giovanni De’ Medici diligently protected the image he liked to portray as a humble businessman rather than a political figure. He insisted that he and his sons rejected the finery they could easily have afforded in favour of dressing like ordinary Florentines. He always believed that keeping on the side of the people would serve the family well. 

As an example, when Florence was hit by a serious outbreak of plague in 1417, Giovanni made substantial funds available to help the sick. He also used his considerable influence within the Signoria, Florence’s ruling council, to replace the city’s inequitable and oppressive poll tax with a new property tax he had designed himself that shifted the burden of tax to the wealthy, even at considerable cost to himself.

The Medici’s long tradition of patronage of the arts can also be attributed to a large degree to the example set by Giovanni, who made large donations to the work of artists such as Filippo Brunelleschi and Jacopo della Quercia.

Most notably, he commissioned the great Florentine architect Brunelleschi, famous for the colossal dome of Florence’s duomo, to renovate the ancient Basilica of San Lorenzo, destined to become the church of the Medici family. 

The Old Sacristy in the basilica is regarded as among Brunelleschi’s masterpieces - and of early Renaissance architecture in general. Donatello also contributed significant sculptural work to the project. 

The structure was completed in 1428, a year before Giovanni died. As per his wishes, Giovanni De’ Medici was buried in the Old Sacristy. His wife was buried with him after her death four years later.

De’ Medici was thought to be 69 at the time of his death. Though less flamboyant than some of his descendants, his achievements were foundational. By establishing the Medici Bank and securing the family’s early fortunes, he set in motion a dynasty that would shape European history for centuries. 

The Basilica of San Lorenzo in Florence became
the family church of the Medici dynasty

Travel tip:

The Basilica di San Lorenzo, the burial place of the principal members of the Medici family, is one of the largest churches in Florence, situated in the middle of the market district in Piazza di San Lorenzo. Filippo Brunelleschi was commissioned to design a new building in 1419 to replace the original 11th century Romanesque church on the site but the new church was not completed until after his death. It is considered one of the greatest examples of Renaissance architecture.  Numerous architects worked at the church, including Michelangelo. Brunelleschi designed the central nave, with the two collateral naves on either side, and the Old Sacristy. The sacristy chapel is a cube with a lateral length of about 11 metres (36 feet), covered with a hemispheric dome, that is without any decoration beside its twelve ribs that converge in an oculus. The interior became a standard in Renaissance architecture, as did Brunelleschi’s use of white walls. 

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The beautiful Florence Baptistery, featuring 
Ghiberti's 'Gates of Paradise' is a city landmark

Travel tip:

The Florence Baptistery, where Giovanni De’ Medici commissioned a tomb for Baldassare Costa, is also known as the Baptistery of Saint John, dedicated to the patron saint of the city, John the Baptist. The octagonal baptistery stands where Piazza del Duomo meets Piazza San GThe architecture of the Baptistery takes inspiration from the Pantheon, an ancient Roman temple, yet it is also a highly original artistic achievement, although the identity of the architects who worked on its construction in the 11th and 12th century is undocumented. What is known is that the North Doors and the famous East Doors - dubbed the Gates of Paradise and widely regarded as a masterpiece of Renaissance art - were constructed in the 15th century by the sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti. The project was awarded to Ghiberti after he entered a competition for designs in which the judges were unable to decide between his submission and that of Filippo Brunelleschi, with whom he might have shared the commission had the latter not refused.

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More reading:

The colourful life of Baldassare Cossa

Why Cosimo di Giovanni de’ Medici is seen as the founder of the Medici dynasty

The architectural genius of Filippo Brunelleschi

Also on this day:

1339: The Battle of Parabiago

1549: The birth of Francesco Maria II della Rovere

1778: The death of scientist Laura Bassi

1816: Rossini’s Barber of Seville premieres 

1950: The birth of journalist Pino Aprile

1993: The death of car maker Ferruccio Lamborghini

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King Francis II of the Two Sicilies

Last ruler of Naples wanted to help the poor

Francis II ruled for the final
year before unification

Francis II, the last King of the Two Sicilies until he was deposed in 1861, when Italy was about to become a unified country, died on this day in 1894 in Arco in Trentino-Alto Adige. 

Although he reigned over his subjects for one year only, King Francis is remembered as a humane ruler who believed he had a duty to help the needy. He also had a strong Christian faith, and he was declared a Servant of God by Pope Francis in 2020.

Born in 1836, Francis II was the only son and heir of King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies, with his first wife, Maria Christina of Savoy. He was christened Francesco d’Assisi Maria Leopoldo. Sadly, his mother died only five days after giving birth to him.

Five years later, King Ferdinand married Maria Theresa of Austria and she became stepmother to the young Francis, who was said to have feared her, but was also greatly influenced by her.

Francis married Duchess Maria Sophie of Bavaria in 1859 in Bavaria. They had one daughter, Maria Cristina Pia, born after they had been married for ten years, but she died after just three months

After the death of his father, Francis ascended to his throne in May 1859. He reigned over the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies - Regno delle Due Sicilie - which encompassed all the Italian peninsula south of the Papal States, as well as Sicily. This area was under the control of the House of Bourbon from 1816 to 1861.

It was called The Two Sicilies, because the Kingdom of Naples had also been known officially as the Kingdom of Sicily and, collectively, they had been referred to as ‘both Sicilies’.

Francis is recorded to have appointed committees to improve conditions in prisons and he lowered taxes to help poor people. He ordered wheat stocks to be distributed to poor people at a low price, letting the state bear most of the cost, and he founded schools and universities.

Francis II with his wife, Duchess 
Maria Sophie of Bavaria

He was planning Government sponsored steam-mills to offer free grain grinding to benefit the poor and was also going to enlarge the railway system, when the arrival of Giuseppe Garibaldi’s troops halted his projects. His admirers believe his achievements during his brief time on the throne showed what a good ruler he would have been for the south of Italy.

After Garibaldi crossed the Strait of Messina and advanced on Naples in 1860 in his bid to unify Italy, Francis II and his wife, Maria Sophie, sailed to Gaeta to join up with the bulk of his troops. The following day, Garibaldi entered Naples and formed a provisional Government.

Garibaldi’s troops defeated a Neapolitan force at the Battle of Volturno and captured Capua. When only Gaeta, Messina, and Civitella del Tronto still held out against him, Garibaldi laid siege to Gaeta. 

Francis and Maria Sophie behaved with great courage and it was not until February 1861, when the French fleet that had been protecting them from an attack launched from the sea was withdrawn, that they finally gave in.

After Francis II had been deposed, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ceased to exist and its territory was absorbed into the Kingdom of Sardinia, which later became the Kingdom of Italy.

Francis and Maria Sophie moved to Rome to live as guests of the Pope where they maintained a Government in exile that continued to be recognised by some Catholic countries in Europe. Just before the Italian troops moved in to occupy Rome in 1870, Francis and his wife disbanded their Government and embarked on a wandering life, living in parts of Austria, France, and Bavaria.

In 1894, Francis died at Arco in Trentino-Alto Adige. Maria Sophie survived him for another 31 years before she died in Munich.

After the death of Francis, his half-brother, Prince Alfonso, became the pretender to the throne of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 

The case for the beatification and canonisation of King Francis II was introduced in December 2020 by Cardinal Crescenzio Sepe, the Archbishop of Naples. When the Pope made King Francis a Servant of God, it was seen as the first step towards him becoming a Saint.

The award winning 1989 film, O Re, directed by Luigi Magni, was loosely based on the life of Francis II. The actor Giancarlo Giannini played the part of King Francis.

The ruins of the Castello di Arco sit on a rocky
outcrop overlooking the town of Arco

Travel tip:

Arco is a small comune - municipality - in the region of Trentino-Alto Adige, just 5km (3 miles) from the northern tip of Lake Garda. Its main claim to fame is being the place where King Francis II died. The ruined medieval Castello di Arco,  built on top of a rocky spur, is one of the important sights in the town and featured in a watercolour by Albrecht Durer. The 16th century palace, Palazzo Marchetti, has a portal that is attributed to Giulio Romano. Tourism is a major part of the local economy with many Germans and Austrians coming over the Brenner pass to visit Arco. Wind surfing on Lake Garda and rock climbing on the city walls are popular activities for visitors. Arco also hosts one of the most popular Christmas markets in Trentino-Alto Adige.

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A view of the harbour and waterfront at Gaeta,
on the coast between Rome and Naples

Travel tip:

Gaeta, where Francis II went with his wife as Garibaldi advanced on Naples, is a small city in the province of Latina in Lazio, 120 km (75 miles) south of Rome, set on a promontory stretching towards the Gulf of Gaeta. Today it is a fishing and oil seaport and a popular resort with tourists. It has a huge Aragonese-Angevine Castle, which dates back to the sixth century and the Cathedral of Assunta e Sant’Erasmo, which was built over a more ancient church and consecrated by Pope Paschal II in 1106.  Other attractions include the Monte Orlando natural park, a protected area with Roman ruins, hiking trails, and panoramic views, featuring the Mausoleum of Lucius Munatius Plancus.  Gaeta was where Pope Pius IX was given a shelter by Francis’s father, Ferdinand II, after being besieged in Palazzo del Quirinale in Rome, in 1848, having lost control of the Papal States to revolutionaries.

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More reading:

Francis I, the ruler who saw the Austrians from Naples

The architect who helped Bourbon king Charles VII transform Naples   

The Bonaparte who was made King of Naples

Also on this day:

1660: The birth of Saint Veronica Giuliani

1848: The birth of tyre maker Giovanni Battista Pirelli

1888: The birth of tenor Tito Schipa

1983: Pope John Paul II visits would-be killer in prison

1985: Terror attack at Fiumicino Airport

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